Dr. Carlos F. Márquez Linares Dr. Enrique F. Quero Gervilla Doctoral Programme in Languages, Texts and Contexts Faculty of Translation and Interpreting university of granada

cотрудник, имеющий право подписи (UNTERM) (sotrudnik, imeushhiy pravo podpisi; L.t.: an employee having the right of signature);

чиновник, имеющий право подписи (Ruscorpora) (chinovnik, imeushhiy pravo podpisi; L.t.: an official having the right of signature);

чиновник, обладающий правом подписи (Ruscorpora) (сhinovnik, obladajushhij pravom podpisi; L.t.: an official posessing the right of signature);

чиновник, владеющий правом подписи (Ruscorpora) (сhinovnik, vladejushhij pravom podpisi; L.t.: an official owning the right of signature).

The abundance of Additional or Irrelevant Components forms indicates that the meaning of the term approving officer should be disclosed in Russian. Nevertheless, the construction with a preposition чиновник с правом подписи (IFC) (chinovnik s pravom podpisi; L.t.: an official with the right of signature) can be suggested as the translation because its form is clear and convenient to use: “Сегодня предприниматель ― вассал пожарников, милиции, налоговиков, эпидемиологов, чиновников с правом подписи на небольшом клочке бумаги” (Goszakaz na srednij klass. Obratnaja svjaz', 2002. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: officials with the right of a signature).

The translation of verbs and verbal constructions show the tendency towards employing the same structure in Russian. It proves that the Pure DT method depends on the meaning of a term, rather than on its form. For instance, the term nullify or invalidate (a transaction) was translated into Russian with an orientation towards the specific use of the term and its connection to the semantic component “a transaction”: объявить недействительной (IFC) (ob’yavit’ nedejstvitel’noj; L.t.: to declare invalid); признавать недействительным (Lingvo Universal) (Priznavat´ (delat’) nedejstvitel´nym; L.t.: to acknowledge (to make) invalid). The terms are related to the term’s definition: “to cause (something) to lose its value or to have no effect” (Merriam-Webster). The latter term form appears in Ruscorpora and can be suggested as a translation for the English term: “Чтобы получить разрешение на арест имущества, суды должны будут признавать сделку по его продаже недействительной” (Kunle & Alekseevskih, 2013. Ruscorpora). Accordingly, the descriptive form of the term is triggered by its specific use, while the Direct Equivalent can be used both in both LGP and LSP: aннулировать, отменить (сделку, операцию) (IFC) (annulirovat’, otmenit’ (sdelku, operaciju); L.t.: nullify, to cancel (a transaction, an operation)). In the special field of Law, the term is also used in the Pure Descriptive form to disclose the term meaning: лишать законной силы (Lingvo Universal) (lishat’ zakonnoj sily; L.t. to deprive of a law force); лишать юридической силы² (lishat’ juridicheskoj sily; L.t.: to deprive of a juridical (legal) force).

Constructions with prepositions also justify the fact that Pure DT is mostly content-oriented. For example, the structure of the unit terms of reference did not influence the target term, which has the following form options: техническое задание (OECD-1) (tehnicheskoe zadanie; L.t.: a conventional task); пределы компетенции (Lingvo Universal) (predely kompetencii; L.t.: limits of the competence); круг полномочий (Lingvo Universal) (krug polnomochij; L.t.: a round of authorities). The descriptive term form appears to be even more concise than the source term; however, it can be considered to be Pure DT, as it focuses on the source term content: “The specific limits of responsibility that determine the activities of an investigating body, etc. A description of the objectives and structure of a meeting, committee, project, etc.” (Collins). All of the term equivalents are frequently used in Ruscorpora, although the term техническое задание (OECD-1) (tehnicheskoe zadanie; L.t.: a conventional task) surpasses the other and

appears in 520 documents: “К сентябрю холдинг представит техническое задание по проекту, а до конца года ЦППК и ТМХ должны заключить договор на поставку электричек” (Gordeeva, 2014. Ruscorpora). The term form is used for specific purposes, although the short form of direct equivalents also exists and is offered in some dictionaries: компетенция (Academic) (kompetenсija; L.t.: a compensation); ведение (Academic) (vedenie; L.t.: directing, authority, competence).

The term with a preposition shareholder of record (stockholder of record, holder of record, owner of record) represents an interesting case of the Pure DT formation method in Russian. The term has been recommended in the following form: (лицо), зарегистрированное в реестре акционеров (Ruscorpora) ((lico), zaregistrirovannoje v reestre akсionerov; L.t.: (a person/entity) registered in a shareholder registry). In this case the form of the source term has implicitly influenced the creation of the target form. For this reason, the form of the Russian term borders upon the Calque and DT method. First of all, the term component “holder” in the compound word “shareholder” can be translated separately from the component “share” or together with it:

• 
  “лицо”: (Additional or Irrelevant Components) Лицо, указанное в учетных записях в качестве зарегистрированного держателя ценных бумаг эмитента (IFC) (Lico, ukazannoe v uchetnyh zapisjah v kachestve zaregistrirovannogo derzhatelja сennyh bumag; L.t.: a person/entity indicated in the record statements as a registered holder of the securities of the issuer));
  
• 
  “владелец”: (Direct translation equivalent + Calque) зарегистрированный владелец акции (Lingvo Economics; Academic) (zaregistrirovannyj vladelec akcii; L.t.: a registered owner of a share);
  
• 
  “держатель” (Direct Equivalent + Calque) зарегистрированный держатель акции
  

(Academic) (zaregistrirovannyj derzhatel’ akcii; L.t.: a registered shareholder));

• 
  “акционер” (Direct translation equivalent) зарегистрированный акционер (Lingvo; Academic) (zaregistrirovannyj akcioner; L.t.: registered shareholder); (Calque and DT) акционер, зарегистрированный в реестре (акционеров) (Ruscorpora) (akcioner, zaregistrirovannyj v reestre akcionerov; L.t.: a person/entity registered in a shareholder registry).
  

The analysis of these term forms and the discrepancies of term translation equivalents indicate the possibility of replacing the term “holder” with a certain entity or a person in question, or the general term component “лицо” (“lico”; a person or entity) can be used: “лицо, зарегистрированное в реестре акционеров Общества, обязано своевременно информировать держателя реестра акционеров об изменении своих данных” (Svircova, 2003. Ruscorpora).

The term component “record” coupled with the preposition “of” cannot be translated without the use of a participle “зарегистрированный” (zaregistrirovannyj; L.t.: registered) (документально зарегистрированный, засвиделельствованный (Lingvo Universal) (dokumenal’no zaregistirovannyj, zasvidetel’strvovannyj; L.t.: officially registered, legalized)). The application of this term component results in the use of a participial construction and an additional semantic element “реестр” (reestr; L.t.: registry). The latter entails the implicit use of the component “share” together with its full form “shareholder”: “акционер” (akcioner). The Russian term with the Pure DT form is convenient and corresponds to the definition of the source term: “the stockholder whose name is registered on the books of the corporation as owning the shares at a particular time. Shareholder, shareowner, stockholder - someone who holds shares of stock in a corporation” (Farlex).

2. PURE DT. Figurativeness

The previous analysis indicates that Pure DT is mostly content-oriented, influenced by the meaning of the source term. For this reason, figuratively motivated terms constitute a special subcategory of Pure DT.

As many as 11 out of 45 terms with Pure DT as the recommended translation have figurative meanings in the English language.

In all cases, the figurativeness in the term form has been disclosed in Russian. Accordingly, the figurativeness of the term was made explicit, which triggered the use of descriptiveness. For instance, the term risk-appetite is offered in the dictionaries in many descriptive forms (see table

16), one of which is quite frequently used in Ruscorpora (8 documents): приемлемый уровень риска (Ruscorpora) (prijemplemyj uroven’ riska; L.t.: an acceptable/relevant level of risk): “Мы определили для себя приемлемый уровень риска по кредитам и начинаем выдавать, следя за тем, как ведет себя подушечка необходимой ликвидности” (Ivanter, 2014. Ruscorpora). The term equivalent employs the component “risk”, although the whole term is based on the management term definition: “The ISO 31000 risk management standard refers to risk appetite as the "Amount and type of risk that an organization is prepared to pursue, retain or take". In a literal sense, defining your appetite means defining how "hungry" you are for risk. (Protecht). Pure Calque can be used as the method of the translation of the term risk-appetite; however, the structure of the term breaks generally accepted patterns of Russian (Calque with certain changes is more natural: аппетит к риску (appetit k risky; L.t.: appetite for risk): риск-аппетит (IFC) (risk-appetit). The term appears only once in Ruscorpora: “Увеличение просроченной задолженности заставило многие банки пересмотреть свои подходы к риск-аппетиту” (Kondrat'ev, 2011. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: approaches to risk-appetite).

The term level playing field has the following definitions: “a situation that is fair for all the people involved” (Macmillan); “a situation in which none of the competing parties has an advantage at the outset of a competitive activity” (Collins). The figurativeness of the term is based on the metaphor BUSINESS AS a GAME, where the BUSINESS AFFAIRS or CONDITIONS are a PLAYING FIELD. The metaphorical sense has been completely lost in the Russian term: равные условия для конкуренции (IFC) (ravnye usloviya dlya konkurentzii; L.t.: equal conditions for a competition). The term level playing field has the Direct Equivalent without figurative meaning: единые правила игры or равные возможности (Lingvo) (edinye pravila igry or ravnue vozmozhnosti; L.t.: common game rules or common opportunities).

The following Calque (Calque and DT) forms are offered for the use of the term:

• 
  (Calque) единое игровое поле (IFC) (edinoe igrovoe pole; L.t.: integrated/common playing field;
  
• 
  (Calque and DT) поле с равными условиями игры (Academic) (pole s ravnymi uslovijami igry; L.t.: a field with common playing conditions).
  

Nevertheless, only the Pure DT form appears in Ruscorpora (6 documents) as the equivalent for the special meaning of the term level playing field: “Эта система прозрачна, позволяет получать стабильные доходы в государственный бюджет и обеспечивает равные условия для конкуренции между производителями на рынке” (Vyhuholeva, 2002. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: equal conditions for a competition).

The term maturity (securities) is based on the general meaning denoting “the state of being fully developed or adult” (Collins). In the field of finance the term stands for “the date upon which a bill of exchange, bond, note, etc., becomes due for repayment” and “the state of a bill, note, etc., when due” (Collins). Accordingly, the term maturity is based on the metaphorical sense of being grown up or developed, i.e. being ready, full-fledged, finished. In Russian the term favors the use of Pure DT with an explicit term form: срок погашения (ценных бумаг) (IFC; Academic) (srok pogashenija (cennyh bumag); L.t.: a date/term of repayment of (securities)): “При этом чем более отдален срок погашения облигаций, тем шире спектр колебаний рыночных цен” (Stahovich, 2003. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: a term of repayment of bonds). The analysis of the Russian equivalents for the term maturity revealed that the term creation does not employ Calque or Direct Loan. The phonetic form of the English term does not coincide with the phonetic system of Russian and the source term cannot be reproduced in its initial form in Russian without certain changes. The direct equivalents for the general use of the word maturity are as follows: спелость, зрелость, совершеннолетие (Lingvo) (spelost’, zrelost’, sovershennoletije; L.t.: ripeness, maturity, full age). The Corporate Governance term should be used alongside the terms security or bond, in Russian these units are not entirely compatible:

*зрелость облигаций; *спелость ценных бумаг and attain ambiguous connotation. Consequently, Pure DT in this case is used, based on the requirements for the preference for the native language and term form transparency.

3. PURE DT. Competitiveness and Use

The analysis of Pure DT has proven the method to be relatively practical. In some cases the technique showed the tendency for a lack of stability or derivability of its form. In general, Pure DT can be used in the following circumstances:

• 
  The source term contains implicit semantic components which cannot be reproduced in the Russian term without descriptive elements. For example, the term to go public: (Быть) включённым в листинг фондовой биржи ((Byt’) vkljuchjonnym v listing fondovoj birzhi; L.t.: to be included into the listing of a stock exchange) (Ruscorpora) (to go public “refers to a private company's initial public offering (IPO), thus becoming a publicly traded and owned entity” (Investopedia) (see table 5)) ;
  
• 
  The form of the source term is not transparent or motivated in Russian. For example, to foreclose: обращать взыскание (на имущество) (IFC) (obrasshat’ vzyskanie (na imusshhestvo); L.t.: to impose a penalty (on a property)) (<…> from Old French forclos, past participle of forclore "exclude, shut out; shun; drive away" (12c.) <…> Specific mortgage law sense is first attested 1728.<…>”. (Online Etymology Dictionary). “A situation in which a homeowner is unable to make full principal and interest payments on his/her mortgage, which allows the lender to seize the property, evict the homeowner and sell the home, as stipulated in the mortgage contract. <…>” (Investopedia);
  
• 
  Direct Loan or Calque are not applicable because of the unwieldy phonetic, graphic, syntactic structure or semantics in Russian. For example, stakeholder: заинтересованное лицо (IFC) (zainteresovannoe lico; L.t.: an interested person/entity) (The form of Direct Loan (transcription) cтейкхоулдер (IFC) is rarely used in the same form (Ruscorpora: 2 doc.) (see table 1));
  
• 
  The figurative meaning of the source term cannot be transferred to Russian without certain losses of transparency, connotation or motivation. The figurative meaning is made explicit. For example, dead hand: владение без права передачи (IFC; Lingvo) (vladenie bez prava peredachi; L.t.: ownership without the right of assignation/transfer) (see table 4).
  

Over the course of the research a total of 22% of the terms with initially descriptive forms were recommended for translation using Pure DT. It shows that Pure DT is less frequent and

effective than Calque and DT (37%). Pure DT proved to be relatively stable, because 36 (out of

45) terms preserved their Pure DT form given in the glossaries, with or without changes. As many as 8 terms initially had a descriptive form with Additional or Irrelevant Components; one has two forms of Calque and Additional or Irrelevant Components. It is interesting to note that other terms were represented by two translation equivalents: Additional or Irrelevant Components and Pure DT (2 terms), Calque and Pure DT (3 terms), Direct Equivalent and Pure DT (1 term), Direct Loan and Pure DT (2 terms) (see below).

Certain terms, initially offered in the glossaries in the form of Pure DT, underwent some changes disclosed in the analysis. For instance, the term authorization has two Pure DT equivalents in the glossary: предоставление полномочий (IFC) (predostavlenie polnomochij; L.t.: granting authorities) and выдача разрешения (IFC) (vydacha razreshenija; L.t.: the emission of permission). The analysis revealed that the term выдача разрешения is widely used in Ruscorpora (353 documents):

“К числу таковых относится сокращение сроков выдачи разрешений, необходимых для начала бизнеса, создание подготовленных промышленных площадок и целый ряд других мер” (Medvedev, 2010. Ruscorpora).

However, the term предоставление полномочий has a similar form in the dictionaries: наделение правами (полномочиями) (например, должностного лица) (Academic) (nadelenie pravami (polnomichijami) (a comment); L.t.: endowing with rights (authority) (for example, an official). The existence of three forms multiplies the deviations and discrepancies of the term use in Russian. However, the term наделение полномочиями (Academic) (nadelenie polnomichijami; L.t.: endowing with authority) surpassed the other terms in their use in Ruscorpora (277 documents, 65 exact matches (наделение правом/правами 89 doc., exact forms: 12 doc.; предоставление полномочий: 45 doc., 5 exact forms): “выборы -это более открытая и демократичная процедура, чем любой другой механизм наделения полномочиями” (Bashlykova, 2013. Ruscorpora).

In order to avoid the uncontrolled use of synonyms, the following term forms are suggested as the translation of the term authorization in the special field of Corporate Governance: выдача