Dr. Carlos F. Márquez Linares Dr. Enrique F. Quero Gervilla Doctoral Programme in Languages, Texts and Contexts Faculty of Translation and Interpreting university of granada

Calque and direct equivalent: Return on Investment (ROI): (Сalque and DT) доход на инвестированный капитал (IFC) (based on the direct translation equivalent borrowed using Direct Loan: (Latin.) Investire (Kurakov, P., Кurakov, V. & Kurakov, А., 2004) (Dohod na investirovanniy capital; L.t.: income on an invested capital) – (Direct Equivalent

+ Calque based on the direct translation equivalent borrowed using Direct Loan)

Доходность инвестиций (IFC) (Dohodnost’ investicii; L.t.: profitability of investments);

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  Abbreviation (of the source term): EBITDA (earnings before interest, tax, depreciation and amortization): (Calque and DT) доходы до уплаты процентов, налогов, износа и амортизации (IFC) (dohody do uplaty protzentov, nalogov, iznosa i amortizacii; L.t.: income before the payment of interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization) – (abbreviation of the source term) EBITDA (with or without a comment) (Ruscorpora).
  

The choice of one specific translation method was based on the following criteria: the practical use of terms, exclusion of synonyms or homonyms, the adequacy and suitability of the form for the grammatical structure of Russian, the derivability and productiveness of the term.

One example is the term cross-shareholding, with its figurative meaning and specific use: “minority stakes held by two companies in each other; this is often done to help strengthen long term business relationships, and is particularly prevalent in RELATIONSHIP MODEL countries such as Germany and Japan. (Law Dictionary). This term is translated in the glossary in the following form: перекрестное участие в акционерном капитале (IFC) (perekrestnoe uchastie v aktzionernom kapitale; L.t.: a cross participation in the joint stock). The term keeps the figurative component, retrieved using Calque: “перекрёстное” (perecryostnoje (adjective, neuter form; “cross”) and resorts to descriptive elements to make the term form clear: “участие в акционерном капитале” (perekrestnoe uchastie v aktzionernom kapitale; L.t.: a cross participation in the joint stock). Nevertheless, the term is not used in Ruscorpora. Its shorter form, borrowed using Calque and represented in the dictionary, is widely used on the Internet and in Ruscorpora (it appears in 17 documents): перекрестное владение акциями (Academic) (perekrestnoe vladenie akcijami; L.t.: cross-holding of shares): “Их связывает банк, стоящий в центре группы, и перекрестное владение акциями” (Bur mistrov, 2012. Ruscorpora).

Accordingly, Calque proves to be more practical in use, and can be offered as the translation of the Enlgish term cross-shareholding.

The term digital divide (“the socioeconomic and other disparities between those people who have opportunities and skills enabling them to benefit from digital resources,especially the Internet, and those who do not have these opportunities or skills <…>” (Dictionary. com)) appears in the dictionaries and glossaries in many forms: (Calque and DT) «цифровая политика» (UN-1) (cifrovaja politika; L.t.: “a digital politics”; Ruscorpora:); (Сalque)

«цифровая пропасть» (Lingvo; Academic) (tzifrovaya propast’; L.t.: digital abyss); (Calque )

«цифровое неравенство» (Lingvo; Academic) (cifrovoe neravenstvo; L.t.: digital inequality); (Calque ) цифровой разрыв (Academic) (cifrovoj razryv; L.t.: digital gap); (Calque ) цифровой барьер (Academic) (cifrovoj barrier; L.t.: digital barrier); (Calque + DT) электронно-цифровой разрыв (Academic) (elektronno-cifrovoj razryv; L.t.: e-(electronic) digital gap).

The English term has been reshaped in many forms in Russian. The abundance of synonyms and attempts to add descriptive (explanatory) elements (“электронно-“(electronic-), “политика” (politics)) have created a lot of discrepancies regarding the use of the term in Russian. Nevertheless, not all the terms are used with the same frequency in Russian. The term цифровая пропасть (Lingvo; Academic) (cifrovaya propast’; L.t.: digital abyss) appears in only one Ruscorpora document; цифровой разрыв (Academic) (cifrovoj razryv; L.t.: digital gap) can be found in 24 Ruscorpora files; and the term цифровое неравенство (Lingvo; Academic) (cifrovoje neravenstvo; L.t.: digital inequality) is used in as many as 49 Ruscorpora texts. None of the other terms (see above) are represented in Ruscopora, while the most frequently used is цифровое неравенство: “Принятие данного законопроекта позволитоператорам сократить сроки строительства сетей и повысить эффективность инвестиций. Также появятся условия для строительства сетей в регионах, где раньше это было невыгодно. В конечном итоге этот шаг направлен на ликвидацию цифрового неравенства, — сообщили

«Известиям» в пресс-службе Минкомсвязи” (Loginov, 2014. Ruscorpora).
Consequently, the exclusion of synonyms proved that Calque and DT is not an essential method in this case, and the other Calque forms and descriptive or direct equivalents of components are not either.

The Calque and DT method supports the preference for the native language requirement. It focuses on the grammatical structure of the term using additional components as tools to shape a term: regular resources: cредства регулярного бюджета (UNTERM) (sredstva reguljarnogo bjudzheta; L.t.: a fund of a regular budget). Nevertheless, the derivabilty of the term form often triggers the use of Calque, Direct Loan, and other innovative methods. For instance, the term netting agreements has the following potential equivalents: (Calque and DT) cоглашение о взаимозачёте (UNCITRAL-1; Academic) (soglashenie o vzaimozachete; L.t.: an agreement on a mutual reckoning (comment: the term “mutual reckoning” in Russian consists of only one word); (Calque and DT) сделка о взаимозачётах (Ruscorpora) (sdelka o vzaimozachjotah; L.t.: a transaction on a mutual reckoning). The term appears in its full form only once in Ruscorpora; however, its parts appear in various documents, which creates disorder within the field of Corporate Governance: (compare)

“Видимо, по той же причине тихо и незаметно умерло дело и в отношении заместителя министра по чрезвычайным ситуациям Владимира Кульечева, курировавшего сделку о взаимозачетах” (Korol'kov & Nikitinskij, 2003. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: a transaction on mutual reckoning) and

“Подписаны соглашения по сотрудничеству в области социального обеспечения (это хорошая новость для пенсионеров: Россия и Латвия договорились о взаимном зачете трудового стажа) и по воинским захоронениям” (Putinu teper' pridetsja ehat' v Latviju, 2007. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: Russia and Latvia agreed on mutual reckoning).

In addition to the unstable term form, one of the term components exists in the field of Management in a form retrieved using Direct Loan: неттинг (netting): “Кроме того, Банк России в настоящее время уже разрабатывает концепцию закона о ликвидационном неттинге” (Miheev, 2006. Ruscorpora). Accordingly, the term offered in the dictionary: (Calque and Direct Loan) соглашение о неттинге (Academic) (soglashcenie o nettinge; L.t.: agreement about netting) is connected and related to the term, which has already been crystallized in LSP. The term form obtained using Calque and Direct Loan boosts the derivability of the term and its consistent use.

In some cases the Calque and DT method is replaced by term forms which are not clear in Russian, which is why they co-exist with descriptive forms, e.g. the figurative term antidilution is equally used in the form of Calque and DT and Pure Calque :

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  (Calque) антиразводнение (Academic) (antirazvodnenie);
  
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  (Calque and DT (a verb)) не размывать пакет акций (Ruscorpora) (ne rasmyvat’ paket akciy; L.t.: Not to dilute a package of shares).
  

Although the second translation option for the term is not a nominative construction, it is easy to use in practice: “Мы перевели уже 25 миллиардов и, защищая их интересы, сделали это так, чтобы не размывать их пакет акций” (Beroeva, 2009. Ruscorpora) (L.t.: to wash out their package of shares). The nominative construction corresponds to the English term in its form, and accordingly, is more convenient for glossaries, dictionaries and LSP texts.

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