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But surely development cannot protect nature or provide such functions?



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V

But surely development cannot protect nature or provide such functions?
We will see that development could provide these functions, but it can only do so efficiently if it 
uses and supports nature itself in the process. It is not sustainable to replace nature with mechanical 
imitations of nature. ‘Eco-services’ is short for the ‘ecosystem goods and services’ provided by 
natural systems, such as those listed above. But here, the term is used to encompass the idea of 
ecosystems valued for their 
own sake
, not just for their instrumental functions. That is to say, the 
term eco-services expands the human-centred notion of ecosystem goods and services to include 
ecology. Our environmental management frameworks treat nature as if it were a collection of dead 
inputs and outputs [Chapter 4]. We have therefore only been concerned to make production and 
development more efficient. This means that, at best, we will reduce natural capital and close off 
future social choices and life quality options ‘more efficiently’, while nature as a whole diminishes.
This is a philosophy worthy of a concentration camp. Instead of adding value, our decision-making 
methods, processes and design decisions ‘balance’ off our life-support system for short-term social 
and economic benefits. Eco-efficiency is a good thing, but it is not good enough.
19
How can development be expected to do better than achieve eco-efficiency?
To go beyond eco-efficiency, we need a better understanding of nature as a living thing, not a set of 
inert inputs and outputs. Eco-efficiency measures are seldom net positive – humans and the ecology 
are seldom healthier after a development than before it was constructed. Positive Development 
would thus require design for eco-services. This means changing the basic functions and forms of 
development itself, so that urban areas can generate natural functions without capital- and resource-
intensive industrial systems [Chapter 6]. We cannot continue to simply squeeze more materials out 
of the environment, squeeze up cities, or squeeze more goods and services out of nature. If we just 
aim for more efficient materials and production processes, the total flows of resources and wastes 
attributable to the built environment will continue to increase. If we just compensate for adverse 
impacts of development elsewhere, we will run out of ‘elsewheres’. Thus far, the implicit assumption 
in development control systems – including ‘sustainability assessment’ – is that we can simply 
compensate for, or ‘offset’, ecological impacts by providing short-term social and economic gains 
[Chapter 7]. Even though development assessment criteria increasingly call for ‘positive contributions 


8
Positive Development
to sustainability’, virtually none require positive 
ecological
impacts. This is because our criteria reflect 
a tacit belief in the legitimacy of what environmental economists call ‘substitution’.

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