norms and explicit or implicit indications of awareness of his/her status as a non-na-
tive speaker by the non-native speaker” (Gass and Houck 1999, 136–37).
Although the intersection of pragmatics and communication strategies was iden-
tified as early as 1983, it did not result in widespread investigations. Gass and Houck
(1999, 132) observe that in spite of the significant research in pragmatic competence
and communication strategies in the past fifteen years and “despite the large body of
emerging literature, pragmatic communication strategies have only begun to receive
attention.” In a chapter devoted entirely to pragmatic communication strategies, Gass
and Houck (1999, 143–44) identify five communication strategies that are relevant to
pragmatics and present in their corpus of refusals by low- and high-intermediate Jap-
anese speakers of English.
6
1. Bluntness (or directness)
2. Indications of linguistic or sociocultural inadequacy (cf. Aston 1993)
a. explicit reference to lack of (sociocultural) knowledge
b. explicit reference to lack of linguistic ability
c. request for explanation of known term
d. nonverbal demonstration of production difficulty
3. Use of the L1
4. Sequential shifts (in attention to goal, choice of semantic formula, and choice
of content excuses or alternatives)
5. Nonverbal expression of affect.
Gass and Houck (1999) provide a full account of each of these strategies in their
data. In this section I review only two: explicit reference to lack of knowledge and
nonverbal expression of affect. One example of an explicit reference to lack of
sociocultural knowledge appears in the cousin scenario in example (19) as the second
reason for denying the cousin admission to the house, repeated here as (27).
(27)
I can’t uh I don’t uh uh um I can’t
I don’t know what uh I do this
situation the eh . . .
uh he he don’t tell me uh if another person come in
his home. (Cousin scenario, Gass and Houck 1999)
A similar appeal to lack of knowledge—this time linguistic rather than
sociocultural—is used by Marta in a disagreement with her native English-speaking
interlocutor (Salsbury and Bardovi-Harlig 2001). In a particularly thorny discussion
of her feelings about gays on an American university campus, Marta works hard to
balance her good relationship with Donna, who is offended by Marta’s stand (her re-
lational goal) and her expression of her beliefs (her actional goals). Because Marta
lacks a range of expressions of modality that would allow her to mitigate her contri-
butions (see foregoing discussion of grammatical competence), she performs fre-
quent repairs that cite her lack of linguistic knowledge, such as that in (28).
(28)
Marta:
No, no, excuse me, this is no my, I express, express bad,
(month 5)
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