Kyrgyzstan: From an “Island of Democracy” to the Coup of 2005
After the bloody interethnic conflicts in Osh and Uzgen in 1990, the Supreme Soviet
of the Kyrgyz SSR appointed Askar Akaev as the country’s president. The demor-
alized Communist bureaucracy lost power, and members of a democratic-minded
intelligentsia dominated public opinion. As the leader of the new wave, Akaev won
A NEW PHASE: 1992–2008 207
the October 1991 presidential election with an overwhelming majority. This opened
the first phase of Kyrgyzstan’s new history, during which both democratization and
a market economy were launched. Between 1995 and 2000, though, democracy
was curtailed and corruption became widespread. This led to a third stage, which
culminated in the Tulip Revolution and coup of March 2005.
Akaev’s main priority throughout his time in office was politics, not economic
development. By 1990 he had come under the strong influence of Russian dissident
Andrei Sakharov, as a result of which the development of democracy became his
main goal. This sharply differentiated Akaev from the other more cautious Central
Asian leaders. When he eventually turned to issues of economic development,
his views were strongly influenced by foreign experts and international financial
institutes. Yet his program was far from clear, as shown in his 1991 comment that
“We are moving on a path that is called a third way, based on the values of capi-
talism and socialism.” This curious phrase reflects not only Akaev’s ambiguous
thinking, but also the complex balance of political and ideological forces within
the leadership as a whole.
When the Communist nomenklatura divided into two camps, it left an opening
for Akaev. He also needed to gain the support of Kyrgyzstan’s south. To this end
he forged what he called a “southern policy,” the cornerstone of which was to
reorganize the administration of the Kyrgyz section of the Ferghana Valley. In the
Ferghana region he established three new provinces or oblasts: Osh, Jalalabad, and
Batken. This allowed the president, at least temporarily, to divide the southern clans
in the three provinces and thereby weaken their influence in the capital.
He made Osh Kyrgyzstan’s southern capital, and established a presidential resi-
dence there to receive the public. In 1991 the government elevated the former Osh
Pedagogical Institute to the level of a university. Meanwhile, a southern branch of the
Academy of Sciences began to operate in Osh and elsewhere in the south. Fearing
a challenge from the old southern elite, Akaev worked to set up a corps of southern
administrators and backers exclusively loyal to him. Through these and other measures
he managed for ten years to divide and weaken the old southern clans.
During this time, Akaev also focused his attention on Kyrgyzstan’s national
minorities. The 1990 tragedy in Osh demanded immediate and deliberate actions to
address minority interests and issues of interethnic relations. To this end, a Kyrgyz-
Russian Slavic University opened in Bishkek in 1992, and shortly thereafter the
Kyrgyz-Uzbek University began operations in Osh, while a “University of Friend-
ship among Peoples” opened in Jalalabad, with instruction in Uzbek. Such televi-
sion and radio channels as Osh TV and Mezon were established to provide Uzbek
language programming. As they grew increasingly aware of their own interests, the
Uzbek and Tajik populations of the Ferghana Valley strongly supported President
Akaev’s policies and continued to do so throughout the 1990s.
Overall, the president tried hard to maneuver between the nationalism of the
Kyrgyz and the concerns of non-Kyrgyz populations. To this end, he proposed the
concept of Kyrgyzstan as a “common home” and actively engaged the UN High
208 BESHIMOV, SHOZIMOV, BAKHADYROV
Commission on National Minorities with the country’s nationality issues, at the same
time craftily using Russian in his dealings with Russia. At his personal initiative,
an Assembly of the Kyrgyz Population was established to harmonize interethnic
relations throughout the country.
Kyrgyzstan’s new political system combined Soviet experience with the new
ideology of democratization. De-Sovietization was never carried out in Kyrgyzstan,
and symbols of the Soviet era were allowed to remain. State agencies changed their
form but remained essentially Soviet; the functions of governors, for example,
remained more-or-less identical to those of the first secretaries of regional commit-
tees of the Communist Party. Akaev instituted elections at the local level and thus
established a degree of self-government, while at the same time mixing appointed
offices with elected ones. Because President Akaev spoke of independence, sepa-
ration of powers, and checks and balances, U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Strobe
Talbott called him “the Jefferson of Central Asia.”
6
A new and genuinely democratic constitution was widely debated and then
adopted in 1991. The following year, a progressive law on media was introduced,
and censorship was lifted by presidential decree the following year. Addressing
the Jogorku Kenesh (parliament) in 1993, Akaev affirmed that “the essence and
basis of a genuine democracy is governance through discussion.” In his search for
a new Kyrgyz identity he turned to the Kyrgyz epic Manas, and also to the West.
The worldwide media first carefully, then boldly, touted the Kyrgyz president as
the hope of democracy not just in Central Asia, but also throughout the CIS.
7
But within the country, Akaev faced real difficulties. The old clans from the
Soviet past and the new regional political groups had no intention of passively ac-
cepting his rise and consequently their own demise. Many deputies and politicians
considered his privatization of agriculture a hasty and unwise imitation of foreign
practices. Moreover, the handing of the country’s gold development to a single
foreign company gave rise to a scandal that set parliament and president at odds.
Akaev seemed willing to make whatever compromises were necessary to maintain
his personal power, hiding such cynical deals behind a façade of liberalism. In 1994
he resorted to various forms of bribery to gain control over parliament, falsified two
referendums, and curtailed parliament’s powers, thereby expanding his own.
8
The presidential elections of 1995 revealed a country divided into two irreconcil-
able camps, with the power of the south and of the Ferghana Valley at the heart of the
issue.
9
The southern clans, led by Bekmamat Osmonov and Y. Sidikov, commanded
strong support across the Ferghana Valley and beyond. But by fraudulently manipulat-
ing the tallies, Akaev received 59 percent of all votes cast. Henceforth, elections were
reduced to nothing more than instruments for maintaining Akaev’s personal power.
The president’s growing effort to monopolize power led to fierce struggles with
the parliament. Following his dubious victory in the 1995 presidential elections,
Akaev used rigged referendums to concentrate power further in his own hands.
Typically, he received more than 90 percent of the votes.
10
He relied on the corrupted
Constitutional Court and Supreme Court to ratify each of his actions.
A NEW PHASE: 1992–2008 209
President Akaev skillfully exploited international contacts to further his efforts.
The United Nations, Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and
World Bank all lent their support, while the World Trade Organization accepted
Kyrgyzstan for membership, the first country of the Commonwealth of Independent
States to be so honored. Thanks to his good relations with such donor countries
as Japan, Germany, and the United States, Akaev received large credits and loans.
While these contributed to economic reform in Kyrgyzstan, they also piled up debt
and helped entrench corruption.
11
Despite several positive developments, interethnic relations in the Kyrgyz sec-
tor of the Ferghana Valley remained tense, as confirmed by sociological research
conducted in Osh and Jalalabad provinces in 1997. The situation became further
complicated by a growing population, migration from urban to rural areas, and
spreading unemployment, all of which intensified the competition for resources.
However, President Akaev partially defused these threats by building a foundation
for positive long-term relations with the country’s neighbors in the Ferghana Valley.
In late 1996 he traveled to Tashkent to sign an “Agreement on Eternal Friendship”
between Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. The following year a similar agreement was
signed by Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. Akaev also actively supported
the agreement ending the Tajik civil war, which Emomali Rakhmonov and Said
Nuri signed in Bishkek on May 18, 1997.
At this time Kyrgyzstan also signed the EU’s Framework Convention on Minority
Rights, extending basic rights to ethnic minorities, in particular the right to preserve
and develop their own religions, languages, traditions, and cultural heritage. Given
the growing tensions in the valley over water, business, and trade, this affirmation
was crucial for improving relations among the Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, and Tajiks. For
example, thanks to this agreement, Uzbek youth from Uzbekistan gained access to
higher education at the Kyrgyz-Uzbek University in Osh. Such measures laid the
foundation for constructive relations during the Batken events, when fighters from
the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) attempted to penetrate Uzbek territory
through the Kyrgyz border. Yet despite a number of positive developments, the
situation on the Uzbek-Kyrgyz border grew tenser. The IMU’s ability to penetrate
the Kyrgyz border, Uzbekistan’s mining of its border with Kyrgyzstan in response,
and the ensuing impediments to cross-border trade came henceforth to dominate
and define relations between the two countries.
Inside Kyrgyzstan, tensions between the traditionalist Ferghana Valley and
the Russified north continued to grow.
12
It did not suffice that Akaev supported a
proposal to celebrate Osh’s 3,000-year anniversary in 2000. He launched many
initiatives, including a new model of social development, a plan to increase agri-
cultural production by 10 percent, and decisive judicial reforms. But all too many
of his ideas were stillborn, remaining on paper only. Discontent grew, and in 1998
Akaev responded by launching a campaign to privatize land.
Akaev’s typical response to pressure was to change his key ministers. Finally,
in early 1998 he decided to form a government staffed with his former academic
210 BESHIMOV, SHOZIMOV, BAKHADYROV
colleagues. Akaev sought to establish a completely loyal government that also would
assent to the further enrichment of his own family. This policy aroused fierce opposi-
tion in the Ferghana Valley and across the south, where people already felt cheated
by the central government. Akaev responded by naming a southerner and former
student Kubanychbek Jumaliyev as prime minister. This proved an utter failure and
after only six months, under pressure from parliament and especially from a solid
bloc of Ferghana deputies, the president had to dismiss the government.
This led directly to a further escalation of political tensions and eventually to
Akaev’s fall. Along the way he established a new political party, Alga, completely
loyal to him, which further angered the Ferghana and southern regions. He pursued
unprecedented measures to strengthen his regime and establish complete control
over financial inflows, business, and the media. A 1999 proposal to elect a portion
of deputies from party lists had the same effect, as did the establishment of various
consultative bodies intended to attract the intelligentsia and tame the opposition.
Dubious presidential and parliamentary elections in 2000 gave rise in due course
to extreme pressure from the opposition, which focused in the Ferghana Valley.
In 2002 government forces killed six protesters in the Aksy district of Jalalabad
province. The remaining Aksy protestors refused to submit to orders from the
president or from Bishkek, and instead took all decisions locally. In effect, an entire
territory in the Ferghana Valley had declared its independence of the capital. This
action, like the Fronde in revolutionary France, instilled in the entire discontented
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