Tajikistan: From Civil War to the Construction of a New State
Tajikistan’s path in the post-Soviet era has been highly distinctive and difficult.
A first phase extending to April 1992 witnessed unexpected freedom and a steady
descent into civil war. A second phase brought the schism among Tajiks into the
212 BESHIMOV, SHOZIMOV, BAKHADYROV
open and culminated in a fierce conflict lasting to 1997. A third stage brought
reconciliation and a fragile peace under the rule of Emomali Rakhmonov. As in
Kyrgyzstan, one of the core issues was the weight of the Ferghana Valley’s voice in
national affairs. But whereas in Kyrgyzstan that process brought a shift in favor of
leaders from the valley at the expense of the old elites from the north, in Tajikistan
the elites from the Ferghana Valley, many of them Uzbek, ceded power to new
forces from the south led by Rakhmonov.
The policies of perestroika and glasnost roused the spirits and emotions of the
Tajik people. As the USSR began to collapse, the republic came to life: citizens
vigorously debated the history, culture, language, and future of the Tajik people.
On September 9, 1991, the Supreme Soviet of Tajikistan declared the country’s
independence, which accelerated the politicization of civil society in the country.
Already by 1991 a range of political forces, chiefly anti-communist, were contending
for power, among them the Rastokhez (Sunrise) movement, the Democratic Party
of Tajikistan, and the Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan (IRPT).
The main line of fissure in the ensuing conflicts was between the industrialized
north, including the Ferghana Valley, and the underdeveloped south. The ethnic
component of this split was defined by the numbers of Uzbeks among the north-
ern population. To assert a purely Tajik identity in this situation, the Rastokhez
movement, comprised mainly of the Tajik intelligentsia, proposed pan-Iranism,
which specified the unification of Tajikistan with the Tajik areas of Bukhara and
Samarkand in Uzbekistan and a segment of Afghanistan up to the Iranian border
itself. Rastokhez thus proposed nothing less than to redraw the existing political
map of large parts of Central Asia.
15
A distinctive aspect of Tajikistan in these years was the use of Islam in the
political struggle. The potential for conflict among the republic’s Tajik, Pamiri,
and Uzbek populations had been obvious from the time Soviet planners drew the
borders. It now burst out when southerners attempted to change the traditional roles
of regional and clan groups in their favor. Simultaneously, conflict between the
increasingly Islamic society and the secular state began to escalate. According to
researcher Viktor Dubovitskii, those who turned to Islam were the least-integrated
into the power structure, especially the ethnic-territorial groups. During the Soviet-
Afghan war underground groups of Wahhabis had formed among them.
16
Both the
historical and cultural preconditions for the Islamization of society were present in
Soviet Tajikistan, and the Soviet-Afghan war only intensified this trend. The new
period witnessed the revival of traditionalist institutions of society, whose positions
in Tajikistan had been strong even during Soviet times.
There was even talk of a complete revival of what were called avlod relations.
Avlod
is the Tajik term for an ancestral group “representative of all the living and
deceased ancestors along the male bloodline and their wives, tracing back to one
single ancestor.” In other words, it is the patriarchal clan of blood-relatives or
the local community, which can provide “a full range of economic, spiritual, and
cultural support systems that make it a kind of micro-state and ensure its indepen-
A NEW PHASE: 1992–2008 213
dence and flexibility.” Whenever people needed substantial assistance in order to
survive, they turned to the avlod system. Natives of Tajik regions with the keenest
awareness of avlods became major forces in the civil war of 1992–97. Indeed, the
avlod
structure explains much of the extreme bitterness of the inter-Tajik conflict,
with many participants seeking to obliterate an opposing clan. These groups formed
the backbone of many armed groups fighting both on the side of the United Tajik
Opposition and as government troops.
State building in Tajikistan entailed a major shift in the political elite at the
expense of the Ferghana Valley. Since as far back as 1950, the Ferghana elites
(Leninabad oblast, now Sughd) controlled the political and economic life of the
republic. This was the deliberate result of Soviet policies, which undergirded this
arrangement by focusing industrial development in the north as well. The most
powerful industrial economic enterprises of Tajikistan were located in or near the
Ferghana Valley, which was far more developed economically than the southern
and eastern parts of the country. Thanks to the lack of roads and railroads, the
economic might of the Tajik sector of the Ferghana Valley was poorly integrated
with the rest of the republic, further heightening tensions.
The main ethno-territorial groups include Tajiks from Karategin (Garm), Kulyab
(Kulob), and Leninabad (Khujand), who constitute more than 75 percent of the
country’s population. Then there are the Pamiris (Badakhshani) and Gissaris, who
make up a substantially smaller proportion of the population. A root cause of the
Tajik conflict was the government’s attempt to change the traditional roles of these
groupings in Tajik society, roles that were succinctly described in the Soviet proverb,
“Leninabad governs, Kulyab guards, the Pamirs dance, and Karategin deals.”
17
Sovereignty brought an abrupt and radical change in this arrangement. Inde-
pendence stimulated the political and cultural aspirations of the southern elites and
clans, who proposed the concepts of pan-Iranism and Islamization. Meanwhile, the
Ferghana section of Tajikistan was discredited by its association with the recent
Soviet past and with the Communist nomenklatura . Local power struggles during
perestroika and the first years of independence gave rise to two opposing ethno-
territorial groups. The first, comprised of those from Karategin and the Pamirs,
claimed to be democratic; the second was Communist and secular, and was com-
prised of those from Kulyab, Leninabad, and Gissar, with member of the Uzbek
diaspora and other national minorities leaning toward the second group. Because
of the political competition between the northern and southern parts of the country,
the Tajik part of the Ferghana Valley grew ever more estranged economically and
politically from Dushanbe and the underdeveloped south.
Issues of leadership played a key role in the tumultuous events in the country.
Such politicians as Qahhor Mahkamov and Rakhmon Nabiev, both former first
secretaries of the Communist Party of Tajikistan, proved unable to crystallize a
national movement or consolidate Tajiks around any concrete program. Both were
eventually removed after mass anti-government protests in Dushanbe.
By 1991 the Islamic opposition had become a parliamentary party, the IRPT,
214 BESHIMOV, SHOZIMOV, BAKHADYROV
whose aims included the establishment of a national government capable of
unifying the major political forces in the country. Hodja Akbar Turajonzoda, the
spiritual leader of Tajikistan’s Muslims, emerged as the leading figure. Turajonzoda
agreed to employ strictly lawful measures, while Nabiev agreed not to prosecute
opposition leaders.
Nabiev’s government was the first to violate this agreement when the presi-
dential battalion, arbitrarily declaring itself the Popular Front, unleashed terror in
several regions of the country, shooting thousands of purported enemies as well as
peaceful civilians. This led to a mass persecution of oppositionists and dissidents.
The opposition, fearing complete annihilation, responded by mobilizing its own
supporters, who united around two parties: the Democratic Party of Tajikistan
and the IRPT. Both proclaimed slogans about parliamentary democracy, Islamic
statehood, and economic reform. Turajonzoda, who presided over both parties and
shared their common goals, led the combined opposition.
The process by which Tajikistan descended into civil war is beyond the scope
of this study. Suffice it to say that mass non-violent protests began in Dushanbe’s
central square in March 1992. After two months the two sides reached a compromise
and formed a coalition government. When the extreme diversity of views among
the opposition caused the coalition to fracture, Tajikistan descended into armed
chaos, which lasted through May. During the first part of that month, when the
presidential guard and militias were battling to control strategically important points
in the capital, Nabiev agreed to a government of national reconciliation, in which
the opposition would receive a third of all positions, including several key posts.
At this point, the confrontation shifted from Dushanbe to the provinces and
assumed a purely military form. Islamic forces emerged at the forefront of the
armed struggle. On June 28, Islamic troops clashed with forces from Kulyab, the
fighting quickly assuming a ruthless and criminal character. Five hundred or more
mujahideen fighters crossed into Tajikistan from Afghanistan, bringing with them
significant stores of arms. As large numbers of fighters penetrated Tajikistan from the
Afghan side of the border, Tajik leaders and Russian border troops charged that fight-
ers for Tajikistan’s Islamic party were being trained at ten camps in Afghanistan.
18
Efforts were made to reach an agreement with leading Afghan fighters. All-party
talks held in July at the Pamiri border town of Khorog led to what was supposed
to have been a ceasefire, lifting of checkpoints, and an exchange of hostages. But
this agreement failed to take hold on the ground. Over the summer of 1994, some
15,000 to 20,000 people were killed, many of them civilians.
President Nabiev had no control over the situation and was soon forced to resign.
After a long tug-of-war, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of Tajikistan met at
the Ferghana Valley village of Arbob and elected Emomali Rakhmonov (later Ra-
khmon) from the southern city of Kulyab as head of parliament, while Abdumalik
Abdulladzhanov from Leninabad, was appointed prime minister. This done, the
Ferghana and Kulyab clans used the breathing space to form and arm the National
Front, a contingent of basic combat troops. The National Front was made up of
A NEW PHASE: 1992–2008 215
Uzbeks, from both Tajikistan and neighboring republics, as well as Tajiks from
Kulyab. On September 27, 1992 the National Front occupied the Ferghana city
of Kurgan-Tyube, and in December, with the support of Uzbekistan and virtually
without a fight, occupied Dushanbe. The country now became divided into two
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