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211
positive number b with the base a as the unique solution of the equation
a
x
= b (the uniqueness of this solution was derived earlier from the
monotonicity of the exponential function). Properties of logarithms
are proven, after which the logarithmic function y = log
a
x is defined.
The properties of this function — its domain, range, monotonicity,
and signs — are derived from the algebraic properties of logarithms.
The injectivity of the logarithmic function is proven on the basis of its
monotonicity: if log
a
x
1
= log
a
x
2
, then x
1
= x
2
(a > 0, a = 1, x
1
> 0,
x
2
> 0). This fact is used as a foundation for solving logarithmic
equations. A graph of the logarithmic function is constructed on the
basis of properties that have been proven. Lastly, the assertion is made
that the exponential and logarithmic functions are inverse functions.
Typical problems pertaining to the topic “Logarithmic Functions”
include the following:
• Construct the graph of the function y = log
2
x; y = log
1
2
x;
• Find the domain of the function
y = log
4
(x − 1); y = log
3
(x
2
+ 2x).
Problems that are labeled as more difficult include the following:
• Prove that the function y = log
2
(x
2
− 1) is increasing over the
interval x > 1;
• Find the domain of the function y = log
π
(2
x
− 2);
• Construct the graph, and find the domain and range of the
following function: y = 1 + log
3
(x − 1). (Alimov et al., 2001,
p. 102)
Among the trigonometric chapters, only the chapter “Trigonomet-
ric Functions” is directly related to our subject; however, the chapters
devoted to formulas and equations provide the necessary preparatory
material for defining and investigating trigonometric functions. The
sine, cosine, and tangent of an arbitrary angle α, measured in radians,
are defined by means of the rotation of a point P(1, 0) on the unit circle
through α radians (the sine, cosine, and tangent of an acute angle have
already been defined in the course in geometry). This construction
is used to establish a correspondence between the points of the real
number line and the points of the unit circle. The sine and cosine of
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
an angle are defined as the y coordinate and x coordinate of a point
obtained by means of a rotation of the point P(1, 0) through angle α.
We should emphasize that students are given definitions of the sine and
cosine of an angle, not of a real number. Subsequently, however, they
are informed that in the expressions sin α and cos α, α can be regarded
as a number. Effectively, the sine of a real number x is defined as the sine
of an angle of x radians. Unfortunately, this important definition is not
made explicitly. In the exposition that follows, the sines and cosines of
angles and numbers appear indiscriminately mixed together. In solving
trigonometric equations, students are introduced to the arcsine and
arccosine of a number as the roots of the corresponding equations
on certain intervals. In addition to equations, certain inequalities are
solved; inequalities are solved with the help of the unit circle, effectively,
from the definitions of sines, cosines, and tangents. Note that, here, the
ordinary program includes sufficiently intricate equations [one example
from a level mandatory for all students: sin x·sin 5x−sin
2
x = 0 (Alimov
et al., 2001, p. 194)].
The chapter “Trigonometric Functions” contains definitions of
the functions y = sin x and y = cos x: to each real number there
corresponds a unique point on the circle; to the point there corresponds
an angle; and to the angle, a sine and a cosine. The tangent function is
defined as tan x =
sin x
cos x
. Students solve problems that involve finding
the domains and ranges of these functions.
The range of a function is determined by solving an equation with a
parameter. Indeed, the number a falls within the range of the function
y = f(x) if and only if the equation f(x) = a is solvable. The authors
of the textbook use this argument not only to indicate the ranges of
the basic functions y = sin x and y = cos x, but also to solve a rather
difficult problem about the range of the function y = 3 sin x + 4 cos x
(Alimov et al., 2001, p. 199).
The textbook gives definitions of such general properties of func-
tions as being even, odd, and periodic. Only following this are the
graphs of the functions y = cos x, y = sin x, and y = tan x constructed
and their properties enumerated. Inverse trigonometric functions are
introduced as optional material. These functions are presented as inverse
functions to trigonometric functions on corresponding intervals.
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Elements of Analysis in Russian Schools
213
In this way, in five years of schooling (grades 7–11), students
become acquainted with all of the basic elementary functions [as they
are called, for example, in the classic calculus textbook of Fikhtengolts
(2001)]. As we can see, for the authors of the textbook discussed here,
functions are secondary compared with the corresponding equations.
The well-developed apparatus of calculus, covered in 11th grade, is not
used in the study of elementary functions: these two parts of the course
are studied separately.
The textbook of Alimov et al. follows the classic Russian scheme:
so-called elementary mathematics comes first (even if it is necessary
to add to it just a little bit of the nonelementary — limits). As
already stated above, in the “Stalinist” schools of the 1930s–1950s,
derivatives were not studied. Their appearance effectively almost
coincided with Kolmogorov’s reforms (although the first textbooks
in which the elements of calculus appeared were published before
Kolmogorov’s).
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