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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
mankind’s most important intellectual achievements, and it is desirable
that even those who will not go on to study mathematics in college
acquire some understanding of it. As already noted, arguments can
also be made against this position, relying on the experience of other
countries in which relatively few study calculus. No one, apparently,
denies the need to develop students’ ability to think in terms of
functions (which can be done even without calculus), but even here
quite different approaches are possible.
In Russia, calculus has been taught to students in the highest
grades, in one form or another, for almost a half-century. But while
the content of what students are taught has remained relatively stable,
the manner in which they should be taught remains a subject of debate.
Different opinions exist about the degree of rigor with which various
propositions must be proven, whether or not a formal definition of
limit is required, what quantity of geometric and physical applications
should be examined, and whether attention should be primarily focused
on theory or practice. We should note, however, that even the
most “proofless” and “recipe-like” textbooks still operate under the
assumption that proofs must be carried out (even if outside of school).
While focusing on an overview of textbooks, we should not lose
sight of the fact that actual education takes place in the classroom. A
teacher who has not understood the subtle arguments of a textbook’s
author which delight experts can do much harm to students. Convesely,
a highly qualified teacher can contribute to a “recipe-like” textbook,
using it only as a kind of reference manual for the students and as a
problem book. On the other hand, it is evident that teachers by and
large are trained by the textbooks which they use in teaching. Thus, if a
textbook straightforwardly states that there is no need to prove or even
to explain, then more than a few teachers will become accustomed to
this idea and even extend it, discovering that not only is there no need to
explain derivatives, but that there is no need to explain anything at all.
At present, schools are offered a wide variety of textbooks; formally,
they can choose from a long list. However, a textbook’s quality is not
always the determining factor in this selection. A great many other
circumstances can play a decisive role: the traditions of the school and
the district, habit, or even the fact that the school library already has a
large number of certain textbooks.
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Furthermore, practical considerations limit the use of technology
in the study of functions, which foreign readers have probably already
considered more than once while reading this chapter. In contrast to
what has happened in other countries, in Russia, the graphing calculator
has thus far not become an everyday instrument for every student. It
may be supposed that its appearance will usher in certain changes —
although, as we have seen, for example, the idea of presenting various
functions, and not just linear ones, to students at very early stages of
schooling can be implemented without calculators; and, conversely, the
presence of a calculator by no means guarantees that students will not
assume that all functions are necessarily linear.
In any event, in summing up, it may be said that Russian educators
have accumulated extensive experience with teaching calculus as part
of mass education, including techniques for presenting theoreti-
cal material and interesting problems. The teaching continues, and
experience — both positive and negative — continues to accumulate.
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