product rule.
finding their probability. The principle of geometrical probability.
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR GRADUATING
STUDENTS
At the end of his or her studies, a student must
know/understand:
• the stochastic basis of a wide range of natural phenomena;
examples of statistical regularity and statistical inference;
be able to:
• interpret information presented in tables, diagrams, graphs;
generate tables, diagrams, graphs;
• solve combinatorial problems by the method of enumeration of
variants as well as by using the product rule;
• calculate the mean value;
• find event frequency from direct observation or supplied statistical
data;
• find probability of random events in basic situations;
be able to deploy acquired knowledge and skills in concrete everyday
activities:
• analyzing practical numerical data presented in the form of
diagrams, graphs, tables;
• solving practical problems in everyday and professional activity
involving numbers, percentages, length, area, volume, time,
velocity;
• solving real-world and school problems using the method of
systematic enumeration of variants;
• comparing probabilities of random events, evaluating the proba-
bility of random events in real-life situations, contrasting models
with real-life situations;
• interpreting statistical assertions.
We can judge from this excerpt that the architects of the new
curriculum wished, at this introductory stage, to limit the course in
statistics and probability to the basic principles and notions, while con-
ferring upon it a sense of unity and comprehensiveness. It had also been
decided at this stage to omit such concepts as “conditional probability”
and “mathematical expectation,” along with several others, which had
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proven too complex for the majority of students and even teachers
during the mass-scale pilot program.
At this time, the course in stochastics may be divided into three
major components: combinatorics, elements of probability theory,
and elements of statistics. While these remain autonomous sub-
jects, their interaction is expected to produce the results outlined
above.
In the course in stochastics, combinatorics plays a somewhat
secondary role. However, while until now it has been firmly confined
to courses for the gifted, electives, summer courses, tournaments, and
Olympiads, here the foundations of basic, preformula combinatorics
are for the first time integrated into the general curriculum and made
available to all students. As a result, each student will learn the method
of enumeration of possible variants, and be able to identify and use
various possible orders of this enumeration: ascending, alphabetized,
tree-diagram, and so on, which will be used in calculating the number
of favorable and all possible outcomes in solving basic problems for
calculating a priori probability in a classical schema. This knowledge
is also required for subsequent study of the foundations of descriptive
statistics, used in the classification of objects based on given parameters.
It should be noted that students are expected to use their new skills
in logical enumeration and combinatorial thinking in connection with
other topics such as visual geometry, number divisibility, and word
problems.
With the study of probability, the emphasis is on promoting
probabilistic thinking matched with the students’ abilities at specific
age levels. The students are exposed to the classical and statistical
approaches to the concept of probability, which are meant to be
complementary and mutually informative. Without this balance, the
students are invariably left with a limited and skewed understanding
of probability. At the same time, the frequency approach (statistical
approach) is somewhat more emphasized. The teaching of the classical
approach (based on the hypothesis of equiprobability) as foundational
has had largely negative results in Russian schools, which finally led to
the exclusion of probability from the general mathematics curriculum
during the reform of the 1960s. Emphasis on the classical approach