Combinatorics, Probability, and Statistics in the Russian School Curriculum
249
total number of handshakes:
12
, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
23
, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28,
34
, 35, 36, 37, 38,
45
, 46, 47, 48,
56
, 57, 58,
67
, 68,
78
.
Comparison of various methods of enumeration proposed by
different students in their approach to the same problem — including
image-based approaches, such as a “tree” of possible variants, either
sketched or imagined, as well as logical arguments — activates the
child’s imagination and logical thinking. When learning about the sys-
tematic method of enumeration, emphasis is given to choosing the
most rational coding strategy and the most convenient method of
enumeration.
The next step is familiarizing the students with the rule of product,
fundamental to the classical formulas of combinatorics: the formulas for
the number of permutations and combinations. This happens naturally
with the transition from problems with relatively few items, permitting
exhaustive enumeration, to problems with large numbers of variants,
where constructing a “tree” or using any other method of direct
enumeration proves technically inefficient.
Let us note that the general methodological goal lies in eliciting
the conceptual basis of the problem and finding an appropriate mathe-
matical model. This is necessary in order to avoid the typical pitfall
of the “formula-based” approach to combinatorics: the temptation
to “plug in” rules and formulas mechanically. To prevent students
from developing the incorrect stereotype, sets of problems using the
rule of product will typically include several problems where the
straightforward use of multiplication will not yield the correct answer.
This exposes the limits of the rule’s application and keeps mindless
formalization at bay. Here is an example of such a problem, analogous
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
to the “handshake problem” (p. 258):
Sixteen players take part in a chess tournament. Every player will
meet every other player in a single match. How many matches will
be played overall?
When encountering this problem, students may reason as follows:
Each match involves two players. The first of these may be any one of
the 16 players; the second may be any one of the remaining 15. By
using the rule of product, as in several previous scenarios, we arrive
at the total number of matches: 16
· 15 = 240.
However, in this case, each of the matches was counted twice: once
counting all the matches played by the first player, and again counting
all the matches played by the second player (the teacher may use a
tournament table to illustrate this point). In reality, half the matches
were played:
16
·15
2
= 120.
The preparatory stage, where the material is presented at the visual
and qualitative level, is likewise the radically new addition to the Russian
teaching of probability in terms of both content and methodology.
At this stage (see Bunimovich, 2009; Tyurin et al., 2009), students
are encouraged to study and actively investigate stochastic situations
and processes. To this end, classes engage in group discussions
on various classroom exercises and experiments, and work together
on constructing probability models. The students must consciously
apply the results of the experiments to analysis and prediction. This
strengthens their motivation to understand not only the principles of
stochastics but also related concepts belonging to other branches of
mathematics (proportions, parts, fractions, percentages, graphs, areas
of geometrical figures, etc.).
New challenges arise when students encounter problems where
chances of such-and-such an event may not be determined with
precision but must be approximated, based on life experience, pre-
viously derived statistical data, or a series of experiments. Because the
probability of an event is contingent on the circumstances in which
it is examined, several answers offered in a class discussion may prove
correct — something that is unexpected and unfamiliar not only for
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