Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
leads invariably and quickly to operations with complex formula
combinatorics and the principle of conditional probability, which are
beyond the psychophysical and intellectual capacities of the average
secondary school student, while continual reliance on the hypothesis
of equiprobability leads to distortions and errors when students begin
to consider real-life situations.
The frequency (statistical) approach, while not free of certain
methodological problems, also possesses a number of advantages,
especially at the early stages of the study of probability. The essential
preparatory course involves direct observation, experimentation, and
discovery of concrete, observable patterns in random events. The
presentation of the material is carefully paced, allowing students to
become familiar in due time with the classical definition of probability
and principles of geometrical probability, and preparing them for a
smooth transition — in college or advanced high school courses — to
the axiomatic approach to the concept of probability.
Within the proposed framework, statistics becomes the central
component of the entire stochastics curriculum, as outlined in the Stan-
dard. Meanwhile, the required volume and difficulty of the material
are dictated not only by the general aim of promoting probabilistic
thinking in students, but also by the need to solve basic statistical
problems — just as the required volume and difficulty of the material
in combinatorics are dictated by the need to provide students with the
mechanism for calculating basic probabilities.
One of the most important objectives of the study of statistics
is active participation of students in the general process of statistical
investigation, which brings together into a single unified whole the
formulation of key principles; the process of gathering and sorting data;
its subsequent plotting in the form of tables, diagrams, and graphs; and
subsequent analysis of these data and interpretation of results. Since
practical application is the primary goal in the study of statistics in
secondary schools, it is imperative that students gain an understanding
of the meaning of statistical predictions and conclusions, to be found
in all aspects of social existence: from television commercials and
sports betting to political and social predictions and commentary.
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The teaching of statistics presupposes continuous reference to real-
life statistical data, public opinion polls, and other number-driven
activities, working with practical, applied problems, and providing
reasoned interpretations of results. Moreover, the natural placement of
stochastics in the mathematics curriculum requires a gradual and timely
transition from descriptive preparatory procedures and consideration
of the notions at a qualitative level to the study of quantitative stochastic
correlations, corresponding to a level of formalization dictated by
specific age-level requirements and continuity of presentation and
taking advantage of intradisciplinary connections (tying stochastics
with the study of percentages, ratios, ordinary fractions, working with
graphs, calculators, etc.).
At the time of the experiment, only one textbook “set” for
the general secondary school incorporated stochastics (Dorofeev and
Sharygin, cf. above); today, there is a boom in publishing and integrat-
ing a variety of practical study materials, textbook supplements, and
study aids containing combinatorics, probability, and statistics material.
One of the characteristics of these publications is that they all address
the pressing issue of the day: formulation of a methodology for the
practical integration of stochastics into the general curriculum. At the
same time, they are frequently written outside the context of theoretical
research, and of the contradictory and largely negative theoretical and
practical experience of past attempts at integrating stochastics into
our schools. Moreover, they do not take into account international
practice and developments in teaching stochastics, and often ignore
even regulatory guidelines or, simply, the extremely limited number of
hours allotted at this stage to the study of the foundations of stochastics
in school.
Once more, we find the study materials offered for general imple-
mentation full of dogmatism, overloaded with content, and containing
the idiosyncratic ideas and biases of their authors. Curricula incorporat-
ing stochastics plot unwieldy courses of study, poorly suited to students’
age levels and intellectual capacities, and quickly shifting toward
abstraction while adding standard university courses in probability to
the school curriculum (Dyadchenko, 1994; Fedoseev, 2002).
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Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
Among the undisputed advantages of the recently published mate-
rial (Makarychev and Mindyuk, 2003; Mordkovich and Semenov,
2002; Nikolsky et al., 1999–2001; Tkacheva and Fedorova, 2004),
in addition to providing prompt practical response to time demands,
is the attempt to integrate new material into an existing course and
into mathematically and practically interesting problems. We should
note that along with these textbook “sets,” a number of study guides
for the fifth-to-ninth grades are likewise attempting to address the
pressing issues of the day, including Probability and Statistics and
The Foundations of Statistics and Probability, published by the present
author in collaboration with V. A. Bulychev (2002, 2004), as well as
the study guide of Yu. N. Tyurin et al. (2004).
In connection with ongoing efforts to integrate topics in probability
theory, combinatorics, and statistics into the new Russian standards for
mandatory mathematical education, Matematika v shkole — virtually
the only existing domestic journal addressing the problems of teaching
methodology in mathematics — published a special issue in 2009
devoted to the content, methodology, and possible monitoring of the
new course in stochastics. In an article featured in that issue, the present
author laid out the following objectives for integrating the foundations
of probability and statistics into the general curriculum (Bunimovich,
2009, p. 31):
1. Acquiring command of a system of probability and statistical
concepts, indispensable in everyday existence, for the study at a
contemporary level of social and natural sciences in the secondary
school, as well as in the advanced stages of academic or professional
education.
2. Acquiring an understanding of the universality of the laws of
probability and statistics, of stochastics as the foundation of the
contemporary description of the scientific worldview, and as a
tool for modeling social, economic, and natural processes and
phenomena.
3. Developing a probabilistic intuition, statistical culture, combina-
torial thinking, and ability to draw substantiated conclusions from
available data.
4. Becoming familiar with such crucial methods of inquiry as
finding patterns in random processes, constructing adequate
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models of phenomena, and testing hypotheses with experi-
ments.
5. Enriching the personality through the discovery of philosophical
aspects of concepts in statistics and probability by studying the
history of their development.
6. Fostering genuine patriotism by way of considering the contribu-
tion of Russian scientists to the development of probability theory
and mathematical statistics as a full-fledged branch of mathematics,
and recognizing the achievements of native mathematical science
as part of the national heritage.
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