y = ax
2
and grounded theoretically (this is done by completing the
perfect square out of the expression ax
2
+ bx + c, which makes it
possible to find the coordinates of the vertex of the parabola, and then
by examining translations along the coordinate axes). Subsequently,
however, in constructing graphs, the textbook usually confines itself
to using the formula for the x coordinate of the vertex x
0
= −
b
2a
,
although teachers usually require students to indicate several other key
points as well — first and foremost, the points where the graph and the
coordinate axes intersect.
While constructing the graph of y = x
2
, the textbook introduces the
terms “increasing” and “decreasing”: students are told that a function
is increasing when a greater value of y corresponds to a greater value
of x; but, again, statements about the concepts of increasing and
decreasing are made with reference to a graph and with the use of
examples.
Among the typical problems given to students in association with
this topic are not only problems that involve constructing graphs
of quadratic functions, but also problems that involve investigating
the properties of quadratic functions with the help of these graphs.
In particular, students are asked to find the least value of a given
function; to find the values of x for which the value of the function
is equal to a given number (for example, 3); to find the values of x for
which a function assumes positive (negative) values; to determine the
intervals where the given function increases (decreases); and to find
the coordinates of a vertex.
March 9, 2011
15:2
9in x 6in
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
b1073-ch05
206
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
As in the case of the linear function, the concept of the quadratic
function is immediately applied to algebraic material. Thus, in the
section on “Quadratic Inequalities,” three methods for solving such
inequalities are described: by factoring the quadratic trinomial and
solving a system of inequalities; by using the graph of the quadratic
function; and by using the so-called interval method.
In the textbooks of Dorofeev, Suvorova et al. (2009b), quadratic
functions are studied in ninth grade. Here, again, there are more
geometric formulations, more attention to symmetry, translation, and
so on.
In the textbooks of Alimov et al., the general properties of functions
were originally systematically studied in ninth grade in connection with
the topic “Power Functions.” As has already been noted, over the past
10–15 years all kinds of possible abridgments have gradually crept into
the text here (connected first and foremost with an abridgment — or,
more precisely, termination — of the study of powers with rational
exponents). Nonetheless, today, teachers in ninth grade still usually
not only speak about functions of the form y =
k
x
, but also provide
certain general definitions (the domain of a function).
A typical lesson on the given topic could have (and even, in part,
still may have) the following form [Dobrova, Lungardt et al. (1986)
or later editions]:
At the beginning of the lesson, the class again goes over solving simple
linear inequalities. The teacher then examines the expressions
x
2
− 2x + 3,
1
x − 2
,
√
x
and calls the students’ attention to the fact that the last two of
these expressions are determined not for all values of x. After this,
a definition of the concept being studied is formulated.
The set of all values that the argument of a function can assume is
called the domain of the function.
Then, the following problems from the textbook are examined:
find the domain of the following functions: (1) y = 2x
2
+ 3x + 5;
(2) y(x) =
√
x − 1; (3) y(x) =
1
x+2
; (4) y(x) =
4
x+2
x−2
.
The solution to problem (4) is more difficult than the solutions
to the others (note that, according to the curriculum in use today,
March 9, 2011
15:2
9in x 6in
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
b1073-ch05
Elements of Analysis in Russian Schools
207
fourth roots are not studied in the nine-year program) and offers an
opportunity once again to go over the topic of solving inequalities
by using the interval method, which is sufficiently difficult for many
students. The teacher may focus the students’ attention on the fact
that they are familiar with two “dangerous” operations, which are
the reasons for the bounds placed on a function’s domain: division
(it is impossible to divide by 0) and extraction of even roots (it is
impossible to extract an even root of a negative number). Then the
students solve problems that involve finding the domains of various
functions. As homework, the students may be given problems similar
to the ones solved in class, such as “Find the domains of the functions
y(x) =
2x
x
2
−2x−3
; y(x) =
√
3x
2
− 2x + 5”; and problems that involve
repeating what has been covered, such as “A function is defined by
the formula y(x) =
x+5
x−1
; find y(0), y(−2); find the value of x if
y(x) = −3 , y(x) = 13 .”
This lesson can be given in 10th grade as well, but we cite it
here because it is very representative of one of the possible directions
which the study of functions may take. Along with introducing
and developing a new theoretical concept, considerable attention
is devoted to going over topics that involve solving linear and
quadratic inequalities and developing the corresponding skills. The
algebraic element here probably outweighs the analytic element. As
we have seen, other textbooks attempt to make the course more
qualitative, geometric, and visual, and less technical and formula-
laden. A strong point of both sets of textbooks, in our view, lies in
their striving to underscore connections with other sections of the
course.
It was noted above that no rigorous proofs are given for most of
the assertions that are made concerning functions. Still, some attempt
is usually made to give examples or to provide some kind of plausible
argument in support of the assertions being made, and this is another
positive point [although the dynamic here is a complicated one: one
might recall that 40–50 years ago school textbooks for the eight-year
schools of the time contained, for example, a practically precise proof
of the fact that the graph of the function y = kx is a straight line
(Barsukov, 1966)].
March 9, 2011
15:2
9in x 6in
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
b1073-ch05
208
Russian Mathematics Education: Programs and Practices
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |