Uzbekistan, Reversing Land and Water Degradation While Improving Livelihoods: Key
Developments and Sustaining Ingredients for Transition Economies of the Former Soviet
Union,
Colombo, 2005.
90. See for example Alfred Appei and Peter Skorsch, Central Asia, Border Manage-
ment, Report of the European Commission Rapid Reaction Mechanism Assessment Mission,
European Commission Conflict Prevention and Crisis Management Unit, Brussels, 2002,
http://ec.europa.eu/external_relations/cfsp/cpcm/rrm/cabm.htm.
91. See also Aaron T. Wolf, “Conflict and Cooperation Along International Waterways,”
Water Policy,
vol. 1, no. 2, 1998.
278
12
Culture in the Ferghana
Valley Since 1991:
The Issue of Identity
Pulat Shozimov (Tajikistan), with
Joomart Sulaimanov (Kyrgyz Republic) and
Shamshad Abdullaev (Uzbekistan)
Informal cultural and religious networks define the social and political processes
of the Ferghana Valley. The strength of these networks is assured by the region’s
powerful informal leaders, who are responsible for preserving and transmitting
cultural and religious values to the next generations, and to the valley’s geographical
isolation from the major external political centers. Thanks to the latter, the region
became a natural home to many religious and political figures and intellectuals flee-
ing persecution. This gave rise to a paradoxical combination of tendencies there:
the valley always has been a conserver of cultural and religious traditions and, at
the same time, a magnet for new and in some cases dissident ideas. This assured
a permanent tension between tradition and innovation, with the full realization of
each being constrained by the other. In many respects, the dynamics of this inter-
relationship in the Ferghana Valley shapes social, political, religious, and cultural
processes more broadly in modern Central Asia.
The unexpected breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 fragmented the Ferghana
Valley territorially, with Uzbekistan holding about 60 percent of it, Tajikistan 25
percent, and Kyrgyzstan 15 percent. The unfortunate conflicts that occurred during
the first post-independence decades arose in part because the Soviet borders left the
new states with both enclaves and “exclaves,” where the territory of one state is
surrounded by another state and does not have a shared border with its own state.
Besides contradicting the basic concept that nation-states adhere to the principle of
territorial integrity, such enclaves place firm boundaries between different ethnic
groups living in such close proximity to one another that it is impossible to know
exactly where one ends and the other begins.
Another source of conflict is the difficulty of fixing cultural borders in the
Ferghana Valley, especially between Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Ethnic indicators
CULTURE IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 279
there are ambiguous, with many people speaking both Turkic and Tajik-Persian
languages. This reality impedes the prospect of building nation-states whose ter-
ritorial borders coincide with cultural boundaries. It also underscores the fact that
all the region’s social-political processes inevitably are linked to identity.
Many Ferghana residents identify themselves traditionally as Sarts, with all the
cultural ambiguity that that term implies. Sarts lived and worked in the intercultural
space along the Silk Road routes, playing the role of cultural mediators between
diverse social, political, and economic groups. To an extent, the Sarts also integrated
the sedentary and nomadic patterns of life in Central Asia, building cultural com-
monalities that offset the effects of geographical separation.
The territorial settlement following the break-up of the Soviet Union immedi-
ately gave rise to problems of national and cultural sovereignty. Bluntly stated, the
Ferghana Valley posed a challenge to all the symbolic and ideological constructs
designed to develop a national identity for the states in the region. The response
of the intelligentsia of the Ferghana Valley to this issue was ambiguous, as was
clearly reflected in the program for the “Ferghana school” of poetry drafted by
its leader, Shamshad Abdullaev. This group of poets, he argued, “aspires to keep
its distance from all the ideological temptations and various emblems . . . since
this environment leads to ethnic withdrawal, even though it also possesses dense
and indivisible elements of commonality that constitute its primal if unarticulated
spiritual reservoir.”
1
The declarations of independence by the countries of the Ferghana Valley
unleashed a struggle over the new territorial borders, and also a search among all
three entities for their own cultural identities. Typical of new nation-states, this
quest eventually involved all the social, cultural, religious, and political groups
in the region. In their search for identity the cultural and political elites looked
mainly to the past, resurrecting and reviving traditional symbols. This struggle to
create new cultural borders eventually became a distinguishing feature of the first
years of independence across Central Asia. Such official political symbols as Timur
(Tamerlane) in Uzbekistan, the epic poem Manas in Kyrgyzstan, and the ninth-
century ruler Ismail Samoni in Tajikistan shed light on the times and circumstances
in which they were chosen.
Considering the symbol of Timur in the context of the Ferghana Valley, it
is worth noting that in the fifteenth century a major struggle was waged by the
Shaybanids in Bukhara against Babur, who not only was from the Ferghana
Valley but a descendent of Timur. At the same time, the Kyrgyz, who see them-
selves as more Mongol and nomadic, consider Timur not as an Uzbek or part
of the Ferghana-Pamir people, but as one of their own. The same variability is
evident in the issue of the Ferghana people called Sarts, whom Tajik intellectu-
als consider to be Tajik and Uzbeks view as Uzbeks.
2
An extension of this issue
is the clear demarcation between the nomadic culture of the Kyrgyz, the settled
agrarian culture of the Tajiks, and the Uzbeks’ combination of both nomadic and
sedentary cultural patterns. It is worth asking whether and how these different
280 SHOZIMOV, SULAIMANOV, S. ABDULLAEV
heritages shape interrelationships among these Ferghana ethnic groups in the
post-Soviet era and beyond.
Caught in a new crisis of identity, the political and cultural elites of all three
countries scour the cultural heritages of their peoples in search of workable models
for the present. This process has distinct features in the three countries, reflecting the
differing process of state-building in each. Thus, Tajikistan’s turn to the ninth- and
tenth-century Samanid era is justified not only by the great scientists and poets of
that age (among them Abu Ali ibn-Sina, Abulkhasan Rudaki, Abulkosim Firdausi),
3
but also by the tolerance extended then to Christians, Zoroastrians, and Jews, as well
as to Muslims. The Samanids’ openness to diverse ideas and values, it is argued,
gave rise to the dynamism of the age. The Kyrgyz advance analogous arguments
in their embrace of the epic Manas, while the Uzbeks do the same with Timur.
However, even as all three embraced what they saw as an earlier age of cultural
flowering, they also turn to the pre-Soviet model of a traditional society. In the
case of Tajikistan, this relatively recent model owed little or nothing to the period
of flowering, and much to the centuries of hostility to any form of rational thought
and suspicion toward innovation that set in with the collapse of the Samanids’
golden age and the rise of the philosopher Abu Khamid Al-Ghazali. What Ghazali
rationalized and defended became the foundation of a very different Muslim world
that stood squarely against both reason and innovation,
4
and which existed until
the early twentieth century. Thus, when one speaks of cultural “revival” in the
Ferghana Valley one must ask what is being revived: a noble but distant model
from the remote past or the traditional society of a century ago that led to a political
and cultural dead end? Even that traditional society is greatly weakened today, as
are the three great Sufi orders that best embodied it, the Naqshbandiye, Kadiriye,
and Yasaviya. This opens the way for Wahhabism and other pan-Islamic extremist
tendencies to lay claim to the mantle of traditionalism. Whether and how some
type of balance can be struck between moderate or radical forms of traditionalism
and a modernization justified in terms of some early “golden age” will determine
not only the stability of the region, but also the dynamism of its development in
all spheres.
Valuable insights on cultural process in the post-Soviet Ferghana Valley can be
gleaned from a study of the causes of conflicts that have occurred there. During
the Soviet period most conflicts were inter-ethnic and prompted by such practical
issues as water and territory. In the post-Soviet era most conflicts had become
ideological, mainly concerning religion. What remains to be seen is whether the
valley’s cultural resources can be turned into the kind of social capital that can
provide for the region’s economic and political development.
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