F. I. T. Cutting Edge text

Effects of Music 
In the context of sport and exercise psychology, researchers have primarily explored the 
psychological
, 
psychophysical
,
 psychophysiological,
and 
ergogenic
effects of music. 
Psychological
effects refer to how music influences mood, affect, emotion, attitudes, 
cognition, and behavior. The 
psychophysical
effects of music involve sensory responses to 
physiological processes. In music-related research, perceptions of physical effort are of 
particular interest and are most often assessed using ratings of perceived exertion (RPE). The 
psychophysiological
effects of music relate to the influence of music on a range of 
physiological parameters (e.g., blood lactate, heart rate, respiration rate). Music exerts an 
ergogenic
effect when it improves physical performance by either delaying fatigue or 
increasing work capacity. Typically, this results in higher-than-expected levels of endurance, 
power, productivity, or strength. In general terms, rhythm and tempo have been shown to be 
the elements of music most likely to prompt a physical reaction in the listener (Karageorghis, 

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The Role of Music 5 
5 
Terry, & Lane, 1999), reflecting their close relationship to various periodicities of human 
functioning, such as heart beat, breathing rate, and walking (Bonny, 1987). 
Uses of Music 
In a sport and exercise context, music is typically used in one of four ways. First, 
asynchronous
music is played in the background to make the environment more pleasurable 
or to act as a planned distraction. In this application, there is no conscious synchronization 
between movement patterns and musical tempo (Elliot, Carr, & Savage, 2004; Rendi, Szabo, 
& Szabo, 2008). Second, 
synchronous
music is typified by athletes or exercisers using the 
rhythmic or temporal aspects of music as a type of metronome that regulates their movement 
patterns (Simpson & Karageorghis, 2006; Karageorghis, Mouzourides, Priest, Sasso, 
Morrish, & Walley, 2009). Third, 
pre-task
music is applied immediately prior to a physical 
task or sporting event; this entails using a musical stimulus to arouse, relax, or regulate the 
mood of an athlete or a team (Karageorghis, Drew, & Terry, 1996; Lanzillo, Burke, Joyner, 
& Hardy, 2001). Pre-task music is also used to engender task-relevant images or to facilitate 
mental rehearsal (Bishop, Karageorghis, & Loizou, 2007; Gluch 1993). Fourth, music may 
also be used as part of the recovery process following competition or a tough workout (Priest 
& Karageorghis, 2008). This use of music, which we refer to as 
recuperative music
, has not 
been well documented in the sport and exercise literature. Boxed Example 17.1 describes 
how the Brazilian national soccer team uses music in all four ways.
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Insert Boxed Example 17.1 
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