F. I. T. Cutting Edge text

Revised 2006 Conceptual Model 
In 2006, we proposed a simpler conceptual framework directed primarily at the sport 
context, to reflect the burgeoning list of potential benefits of music listening for athletes that 
had come to light through empirical investigations (see Figure 17.2; Terry & Karageorghis, 
2006). In this model, we emphasized (a) the interaction of personal factors (age, socio-
cultural background, musical preferences) and situational factors (presence of others, type of 
activity engaged in, listening context), (b) the influence of intermediaries in the form of the 
four music factors identified previously (i.e., rhythm response, musicality, cultural impact, 
associations), and (c) a longer list of consequences or potential benefits that also included 
dissociation, greater work output, improved skill acquisition, flow state, and enhanced 
performance, as well as arousal control, reduced RPE, and improved mood. The literature 
critically appraised later in this chapter provides substantial support for this list of proposed 
benefits. 
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Insert Figure 17.2 
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The 2007 Grounded Theory Model 
Grounded theory is a set of techniques for developing theory from qualitative data by 
coding raw data into emergent themes at different levels of generality (Glaser & Strauss, 
1967). Bishop et al. (2007) developed a grounded theory of young tennis players‟ use of 
music to manipulate emotional states (see Figure 17.3). This study is one of only a handful to 
apply qualitative techniques when investigating applications of music in sport and exercise 
(see also Gluch 1993; Priest & Karageorghis, 2008; Priest, Karageorghis, & Sharp, 2004). 

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The Role of Music 11 
11 
Based on data derived from a music questionnaire, interviews, 2-week diaries, and 
observations (i.e., facial expressions, smiling, piloerection,
3
and increased liveliness), Bishop 
and colleagues found that tennis players consciously selected music to elicit a variety of 
emotional states. The most frequently reported consequences of music listening included 
enhanced mood, increased arousal, and visual and auditory imagery. Numerous factors 
mediated players‟ choice of tracks and the impact of music listening; these included desired 
emotional state, extra-musical associations, inspirational lyrics, and the way in which the 
music was delivered (e.g., 
iPod
™ vs. stereo hi-fi). 
The grounded theory approach adopted by Bishop et al. (2007) can be used to assist 
practitioners with music-related interventions at the delivery stage. For example, increasing 
the tempo and/or volume of a piece of music can increase an athlete‟s arousal or activation 
level (cf. Edworthy & Waring, 2006). There are at least two ways in which music influences 
arousal levels. First, physiological processes tend to react sympathetically to the rhythmical 
aspects of music. Fast, upbeat music increases heart rate, respiration rate, sweat secretion, and 
numerous other indicators of physical activation. Second, arousal is increased through extra-
musical association. In other words, appropriate music promotes thoughts that inspire 
physical activity or superior sporting performance.
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Insert Figure 17.3 
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