F. I. T. Cutting Edge text

The 1999 Conceptual Model 
To address the paucity of relevant theory, we have published several conceptual 
frameworks over the past decade, three of which are outlined here. In our original conceptual 
framework for predicting the psychophysical effects of asynchronous music in exercise and 
sport (see Figure 17.1), we proposed that four factors determine the motivational quotient of a 
piece of music; namely, 
rhythm response
, 
musicality
, 
cultural impact
, and 
association
(Karageorghis et al., 1999). The validity of these factors was supported using exploratory and 
confirmatory factor analyses. 
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Insert Figure 17.1 
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Rhythm response
relates to innate responses to rhythm-related elements of music, in 
particular, tempo. 
Musicality
refers to pitch-related elements of music, such as melody and 
harmony. 
Cultural impact
reflects the pervasiveness of a particular musical selection within a 
given culture or sub-culture. Frequent exposure to a musical selection increases its familiarity 
which, in turn, determines preference (Schubert, 2007). The fourth factor, 
association
, 
pertains to the extra-musical associations that music can evoke and represents a very 
powerful mechanism by which to generate beneficial effects. For example, 
Chariots Of Fire
by Vangelis became closely associated with Olympic glory in the movie of the same name 
(see Boxed Example 17.2). Similarly, Bill Conti‟s composition 
Gonna Fly Now
, popularized 
in the 
Rocky 
movie series, is associated with striving to overcome adversity. This is perhaps 
why it is played every year by the Eagles Pep Band on the course of the Philadelphia 
Marathon. Such associations are classically conditioned through repetition and powerful 
images in which television, cinema, radio, and the Internet play an important role. 
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The Role of Music 8 
8 
Insert Boxed Example 17.2 
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When a connection between sport and music is reinforced in the media, it can elicit a 
conditioned response that triggers a particular mindset. For example, the M People hit 
Search 
For The Hero
now evokes a sense of pride and inspiration in many British people, owing to 
its recent association with the successful London bid to host the 2012 Olympic Games. Along 
similar lines, music can trigger a relaxation response, which can ease an athlete‟s pre-
competition anxiety. British athlete Kelly Holmes told journalists that she used the soulful 
ballads of Alicia Keys to great effect during the 2004 Athens Olympic Games where she won 
gold medals in the 800 m and 1500 m. Famous athletes‟ playlists are a regular feature in 
newspapers and fitness magazines; a media-led, sport-music connection that motivates many 
people to explore how particular musical selections might enhance their own performance. 
In developing the conceptual model, we demonstrated a hierarchical structure for the four 
factors in terms of determining the motivational quotient of a piece of music. The two most 
important factors, rhythm response and musicality, were termed 
internal
factors because they 
relate to the constituents of music. The other two factors, cultural impact and association, 
were termed 
external
factors because they concern how an individual interprets a piece of 
music. Motivational music is generally of higher tempo (> 120 bpm), has catchy melodies, 
inspiring lyrics, an association with sporting endeavor, and a bright, uplifting harmonic 
structure. Consider tracks such as 
I Like The Way You Move 
by Bodyrockers or 
Boom Boom 
Pow
by the Black Eyed Peas, both of which typify motivational music in a sporting context.
Some of the potential benefits of music were also identified in the model. Among the 
most reliable effects is its influence on arousal or activation levels; causing some media 
commentators to refer to music as a “legal drug” because it can act like a stimulant or a 
sedative. In general terms, loud, upbeat music has a stimulative effect (Edworthy & Waring, 
Internal 
Factors 

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The Role of Music 9 
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2006) while soft, slow music has a sedative effect (Szmedra & Bacharach, 1998). Music also 
has the capacity to lower perceived exertion (RPE), primarily by distracting attention away 
from sensations of fatigue. Nonetheless, during high intensity activity, because physiological 
cues become the more salient influence on attention, an automatic switch of attention from 
external cues to internal, body-related cues occurs (Hernandez-Peon, 1961; Rejeski, 1985). 
As a consequence, given that music is an external cue, its effect on perceived exertion during 
high intensity activities is greatly diminished. Rejeski‟s 
parallel processing model
is often 
cited with reference to this diminution of the effects of music when workload crosses the 
anaerobic threshold; an aspect of the model that has been referred to as the 
load-dependent 
hypothesis
.
Appropriately selected music can also enhance positive dimensions of mood, such as 
vigor, excitement, and happiness, and reduce negative aspects of mood such as boredom, 
tension, and depression (Terry, Dinsdale, Karageorghis, & Lane, 2006). Collectively, such 
benefits can impact upon exercise adherence or compliance to a training program by making 
activities more pleasurable. Moreover, music can be used as part of a pre-event routine to 
help athletes create an optimal mindset through arousal control and mood regulation (see 
Bishop et al., 2007).
To augment the conceptual model, we also developed a measure – the Brunel Music 
Rating Inventory (BMRI; Karageorghis et al., 1999) – and associated methodology to provide 
a mechanism for the objective assessment of the motivational qualities of individual musical 
selections. Many subsequent studies have used the BMRI or its successor, the BMRI-2 
(Karageorghis, Priest, Terry, Chatzisarantis, & Lane, 2006) to rate the motivational qualities 
of music used in experimental conditions. Collectively, research has shown that if the age and 
sociocultural background of participants is accounted for in the music selection process, and 
consideration given to the coordination of music with the task, music is very likely to exert a 

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The Role of Music 10 
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positive influence (Atkinson, Wilson, & Eubank, 2004; Crust, 2008; Crust & Clough, 2006; 
Elliot, Carr, & Orme, 2005; Simpson & Karageorghis, 2006).