F. I. T. Cutting Edge text

Keeping in Time: Synchronous Music 
Despite the proliferation of studies examining asynchronous music since 1997, very few 
researchers have addressed the impact of synchronous music on physical activity. There is 
little doubt that humans have a strong tendency to respond to the rhythmical and temporal 
qualities of music. One manifestation of this is a potential synchronization between either the 
tempo or meter
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of a piece of music and an athlete‟s movement patterns. It is important to 
stress that the synchronous use of music is a conscious process that is contingent upon an 
individual‟s rhythmic ability in maintaining strict time.

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The Role of Music 17 
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As well as the potential benefit of the synchronization phenomenon for athletic training, 
especially in steady-state activities, the use of synchronous music is also integral to several 
sports, including figure skating, rhythmic gymnastics, competition aerobics, and 
synchronized swimming. The types of tasks that are typically used to assess the impact of 
synchronous music include cycle ergometry, walking, and running (Karageorghis et al., 2009; 
Simpson & Karageorghis, 2006).
An important consideration in conducting such research is strict standardization of the 
experimental task. The internal validity of some of the early work was compromised by tasks 
that were difficult or impossible to standardize (see Karageorghis & Terry, 1997).
The relatively few published studies that have investigated the potential benefits of 
synchronous music have shown that it yields significant ergogenic effects among non highly-
trained participants, although its beneficial effects for elite athletes or highly trained 
participants are less well supported. However, an oft-cited example of the effective use of 
synchronous music in elite performance was provided by the celebrated Ethiopian runner 
Haile Gebrselassie who, in February 1998, broke the indoor 2000 m world record while 
synchronizing his stride rate to the rhythmical pop song 
Scatman
, which was broadcast over 
the arena‟s loudspeaker system (see Boxed Example 17.3).
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Insert Boxed Example 17.3 
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Very recent research work has indicated that the benefits that potentially ensue from 
synchronous music might exceed those proposed in our earlier work. Bacon, Myers, and 
Karageorghis (under review) assessed the metabolic cost of exercise conducted 
synchronously to ascertain whether it promoted greater neuromuscular or metabolic 
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Meter involves how tones are grouped with one another over time. For example, how one taps one‟s foot hard 

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The Role of Music 18 
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efficiency. They used a submaximal cycle ergometry task performed at 60% maxHR under 
conditions of synchronous music, slow asynchronous music, and fast asynchronous music. 
Participants used 7.4% less oxygen when listening to a selection of synchronous music when 
compared to slow or fast asynchronous music conditions. Interestingly, no differences were 
found in heart rate or RPE despite the observed reduction in oxygen uptake. 
Karageorghis et al. (2009) examined the psychophysical and ergogenic effects of 
synchronous music applied to a treadmill walking task. Participants initiated the task at 75% 
maxHRR and continued walking until exhaustion. They were exposed to three conditions: 
motivational synchronous music, oudeterous (neutral) synchronous music, and a no-music 
control. The two experimental conditions yielded significantly longer endurance than the 
control, with the motivational music proving superior to the oudeterous music. Indeed, 
exposure to motivational music was associated with a 15% increase in treadmill endurance 
over the control and a 6% increase over the oudeterous music. The experimental 
manipulations did not impact significantly on RPE, although they did have a strong influence 
on in-task affect, with the motivational condition yielding more positive feelings right up to 
the point of voluntary exhaustion (see Figure 17.5). Findings supported the notion that 
although music may not moderate 
what
one feels during high intensity exercise, it can 
moderate 
how
one feels it (cf. Hardy & Rejeski, 1989). Despite the fact that music cannot 
reduce RPE at high exercise intensities, it is possible that if the motivational qualities are 
sufficiently high, the music may ameliorate the potential negative impact of high intensity 
exercise on affect (Elliott et al., 2004). 
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Insert Figure 17.5 
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versus light, and how this series of taps forms together to create larger units. Meter is created in our brains by 

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The Role of Music 19 
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Simpson and Karageorghis (2006) tested the impact of synchronous music on anaerobic 
endurance using a 400 m sprint time trial. This study was designed to have high ecological 
validity, by implementing conditions of motivational synchronous music, oudeterous 
(neutral) synchronous music, and a no-music control in a race-like protocol with qualified 
timekeepers. Both music conditions yielded faster 400 m times than the control although, 
contrary to expectations, there was no significant difference between the motivational and 
oudeterous music conditions. This suggests that motivational qualities may not be of prime 
importance when music is used synchronously during an anaerobic endurance task. A 
limitation of this study was that it was very difficult for the participants to achieve strict 
synchronization, particularly in the early and latter stages of the task.
A follow-up study using circuit-type exercises (Karageorghis et al., 2010) found that, 
synchronous music did not elicit ergogenic or psychological effects in isolation; instead there 
was a Condition x Gender interaction for affect and total repetitions performed. Men reported 
higher negative affect scores than women during oudeterous and motivational music 
conditions but the opposite trend was evident in the control condition. Both genders produced 
more repetitions with motivational music than oudeterous music. Although women 
performed fewer repetitions under the control condition, men and women performed 
comparably in the motivational condition. Results did not support the hypothesis that women 
would outperform men during complex synchronous movement, although they did point to a 
gender differential in responses to synchronous music during circuit-type exercise. 
Independent of the research developments discussed, there has been substantial 
commercial activity in recent years focused on the development and promotion of walking 
programs that use synchronous music either to promote fitness (e.g., www.run2r.com) or as 
an integral part of cardiac rehabilitation (e.g., www.positiveworkouts.com). Several mass 
extracting detail from rhythmic cues and loudness.

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The Role of Music 20 
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participation events have been organized by the International Management Group (IMG) with 
music selected scientifically to enhance the experience of participants and promote 
synchronous movement (e.g., www.runtothebeat.co.uk). Following two highly successful 
half-marathons to music hosted by the London Borough of Greenwich in 2008 and 2009, 
IMG is proposing to launch a string of similar mass participation events worldwide in the 
USA, Asia, Australia, and throughout mainland Europe.