F. I. T. Cutting Edge text

Listening Before Starting: Pre-task Music 
A small number of studies have explored the application of music as a form of stimulant 
or sedative prior to a task. In one of our early experiments, we tested the effects of fast, 
energizing music and slow, relaxing music played prior to handgrip dynamometer 
performance (Karageorghis et al., 1996). Participants produced significantly higher grip 
strength after listening to stimulating music compared to sedative music or a white-noise 
control. Also, listening to sedative music resulted in lower strength scores than white noise. 
Our findings cast light on the potentially powerful effects of music on a simple motor task 
and showed how use of a highly standardized task was effective in elucidating the impact of 
pre-task music. A limitation of our approach was that, in maintaining high internal validity, 
the music was provided in a clinical manner that did not typify how athletes might use it in 
real-life settings. 
Using a more ecologically valid approach, Lanzillo et al. (2001) examined the impact of 
pre-event music use on competition anxiety and self-confidence among intercollegiate 
athletes from a range of sports. The experimental group listened to a 3 minute selection of 
their preferred tracks immediately before competition and results were compared against a 
no-music control group. Findings showed that athletes in the experimental group reported 
higher state self-confidence compared to controls, although there were no differences in 
anxiety scores. A limitation of this study was that ability to select appropriate music to 

---

The Role of Music 21 
21 
regulate activation levels inevitably varied among participants, introducing a potential 
confound. 
Bishop, Karageorghis, and Kinrade (2009) used a sample of tennis players to examine 
how changes to the tempo and intensity (volume) of music influenced affective responses and 
subsequent choice-reaction task performance. A researcher-selected piece of music was 
modified to create six versions (3 tempi x 2 intensities) that were compared against white 
noise and silence. A key finding was that fast, loud music produced more pleasant emotional 
states, higher arousal, and faster choice reaction time compared to the same music played at 
moderate volume. An implication for athletes is that in situations where a high level of 
arousal coupled with short reaction times is desirable, the use of fast music played loudly is 
potentially advantageous. 
Using an idiographic approach, Pates, Karageorghis, Fryer, and Maynard (2001) tested 
the effects of pre-task music and performance-related imagery on flow states and netball 
shooting performance among three collegiate netball players. Two players reported increased 
perceptions of flow, while all three showed improved shooting performance. The netball 
players also reported that the intervention enabled them to better control emotions and 
cognitions critical to performance. Pates et al. concluded that music with imagery has the 
potential to enhance athletic performance by triggering emotions and cognitions associated 
with flow. A possible limitation of this study was that the mental rehearsal and recall of flow 
states, which were a central part of the intervention, may have caused the performance 
improvements, rather than the music. 
In an applied context, music is very often used as part of a pre-competition routine. The 
music used by three gold medallists at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney illustrates its 
potential to influence pre-competition mindset. For rowing champion James Cracknell, 
listening to 
Blood Sugar Sex Magik
, an album by the Red Hot Chilli Peppers, proved an 

---

The Role of Music 22 
22 
effective pre-competition strategy for optimizing his arousal and aggression. Audley 
Harrison, the super-heavyweight boxing champion, listened to Japanese classical music to 
ease his pre-fight nerves coming into the final, and Richard Faulds, the winner of the double-
trap shooting, was inspired to seize the moment in the tensest of shoot-offs, by Whitney 
Houston‟s classic 
One Moment In Time
. Even the greatest Olympian of all time, American 
swimmer Michael Phelps, regularly uses music to manipulate his pre-race mindset (see 
Boxed Example 17.4). During the Beijing Olympic Games, the first author combined music 
with PowerPoint™ presentations to target specific pre-competition feelings. For example, to 
reduce the sense of isolation that afflicts some Olympic competitors, Delta Goodrem‟s 
evocative ballad 
Together We Are One
was combined with photographs of coach, family, and 
friends to engender a sense of togetherness and a collective effort. To facilitate accessibility 
during competition, the presentations were converted to mp4 files and loaded onto athletes‟ 
iPod
s™. In summary, pre-task music can have a potent effect on human emotions, but the 
music selection process demands great sensitivity to the personal preferences of the athlete, 
the match between the characteristics of the music and the target emotion, and the 
associations elicited by a particular piece of music.