The Role of Music 25
25
can elicit an ergogenic effect in aerobic endurance activities. Second, use of asynchronous
music during submaximal exercise can reduce RPE by up to 10%, although the degree to
which this effect is mediated by the motivational qualities of music requires further empirical
investigation. It would also be advantageous to use psychobiological measures, such as
salivary cortisol, to examine the mechanisms that underlie
the benefits that have been
observed at submaximal work intensities. Third, from an applied perspective, slow
asynchronous music (< 110 bpm) is generally inappropriate for exercise or training contexts
unless used to limit effort exertion or as an auditory backdrop for warm-up/cool-down
activities. Fourth, rather than a positive-linear relationship between exercise heart rate and
music-tempo preference (Iwanaga 1995a, 1995b), recent research has suggested a quartic
relationship, that should guide practitioners in their prescription of music for activities at
different work intensities. We also recommend that researchers re-examine this quartic trend
to gauge whether it is manifest across a range of exercise modalities. Finally, in
support of
Rejeski‟s (1985) load-dependent hypothesis, asynchronous music has a negligible effect on
psychological and psychophysical responses beyond the anaerobic threshold (70-80% VO
2max
[A DOT ABOVE THE V IS REQUIRED]
).
Synchronous Music
. The few studies that have evaluated use of synchronous music
indicate that it can be applied to aerobic and anaerobic endurance activities to bring a number
of psychological and psychophysical benefits, as well as ergogenic effects.
Most recently,
research has shown that synchronous music used during submaximal cycle ergometry can
facilitate a ~7% decrease in oxygen uptake (Bacon et al., under review). This finding
warrants reinvestigation using a range of exercise modalities; in particular, rhythmic and
repetitive exercise, such as running and rowing.
At present, there is a paucity of research into
the application of synchronous music and the mechanisms that underlie its benefits.
Moreover, this area is in need of development of specific theory to underscore research
The Role of Music 26
26
efforts. Our own investigations have shown large positive effects with recreational exercise
participants, and although these are unlikely to be as pronounced with high-level performers,
the exploration of music-movement synchrony with elite athletes remains a tantalizing
prospect for sport scientists.
Pre-task Music
. Research has shown that pre-task music can be used to manipulate
activation levels prior to sport or exercise performance.
According to Bishop and
Karageorghis (2009), this may be due to a combination of emotion-mediated activation of
visuomotor decision-making pathways in the brain and the priming of increased corticospinal
excitability of motor circuits. Pre-task music can also facilitate task-relevant imagery/mental
rehearsal, enhance self-confidence, and promote the attainment of flow. Despite much
anecdotal evidence of famous athletes using pre-task music to good effect (see Boxed
Example 17.4), there have been relatively few scientific investigations to ascertain the precise
effects and their underlying mechanisms. Accordingly, this area is
potentially fruitful given
the broad interest in pre-performance states that is evident in the sport psychology literature.
We anticipate that the use of music, video, and priming in combination will become
widespread in elite sport during the next decade. Indeed, researchers have already begun to
examine the interactive effects of these media (see Loizou & Karageorghis, 2009).
Recuperative Music.
Investigation of recuperative music is almost entirely virgin territory
for sport and exercise researchers. There is a need for a conceptual framework to be
developed and for this to act as a springboard for both
nomothetic and ideographic
investigations. The latter approach is likely to be more relevant to the application of
recuperative music given differing individual needs for recovery from injury and heavy
training. We advocate that music could be used in a far more systematic manner in order to
facilitate the mental and physical well-being of sport and exercise participants. To aid
scientific investigation of recuperative music, it would be advantageous
for researchers to
The Role of Music 27
27
develop a scale, similar to the BMRI, for assessing the sedative qualities of music in a
physical activity context.
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