desire model of action has been around for a very long time. From Plato, to Hume, to current cognitive
the model is an indication that it is a useful tool for understanding and anticipating intentional behavior. The
desire model.
cultural linguistic data, Weirzbicka (2006, Ch. 7) argues that some cultures lack the concept of
respect to what counts as a synonym of belief and what counts as a translation to belief. In fact, there seems to be
cultural evidence of patterns of belief attribution. For example, Rose et al. (2017) find that people from
linguistic behavior does not support that belief. This suggests that, at least in the cultures sampled,
Buckwalter, Rose, and Turri (2015) propose a distinction that may help clear up some confusions, and may be
the source of difficulty finding synonyms and translations of belief. They distinguish between
thin
help resolve puzzles surrounding belief attribution. For example, suppose we encounter someone who does
s terminology, he thinly believes in climate change but does not thickly believe in it
distinction between thin and thick belief may be useful in finding synonyms and translations of the concept of
the conception of thin vs. thick belief in investigating whether certain cultures have a concept that corresponds
to our concept of belief. It is an open question whether only some, most, or every culture has a concept corre-
sponding to thin belief, thick belief, or both. In any case, the lesson here is that there seems to be some evidence
that many cultures possess the concept of belief, but how exactly it is understood (in a thick or thin sense) and
how often it is employed is up for debate.
A related concern about using the belief
‐
desire model as emblematic of mindreading is that sometimes our expla-
nations of intentional action do not feature beliefs at all. When I explain why my colleague dropped by my office to
chat about departmental gossip, I simply cite his desire to vent to a like
‐
minded colleague. I do not cite his belief that I
am a like
‐
minded colleague or his belief that I am trustworthy and will not repeat his comments to others in the
department. We may be able to explain this with the concepts of thin vs. thick belief again. Perhaps in cases where
I fail to mention a subject's beliefs, the beliefs are thin and thus not very informative or worth citing in an action
explanation.
A different though compatible explanation of our failure to cite beliefs in action explanation is that we sometimes
employ different sorts of mental concepts in action explanations. That is, we may attribute a cognitive state other
than belief to explain and predict behavior. Turri (2017), for example, argues that knowledge attributions lead to
faster and more reliable behavioral predictions than belief attributions. This suggests that sometimes we attribute
knowledge rather than belief to others when explaining and predicting their behavior.
2
Theorists who subscribe to pluralistic views of folk psychology offer an even broader expansion of the concepts
we use in social cognition. Pluralistic folk psychologists argue that we have many tools in our folk psychological
toolkit and belief/desire attribution is just one, relatively minor way of making sense of others' behavior (Andrews,
2012; Fiebich & Coltheart, 2015; Knobe, 2010; Zawidzki, 2013). We also employ stereotypes, character traits, social
norms, and behavioral scripts. Moreover, sometimes we use these and other attributions to explain and predict
behavior, but we also employ them to regulate our own and others' behavior, manipulate people and social interac-
tions according to our own interests, and form moral judgments about individuals and social groups. This model of
folk psychology holds that belief/desire attributions that serve to explain and predict behavior are just one relatively
limited and minor method of understanding and interacting with others.
Another reason to think the belief
‐
desire model is too restrictive comes from psychological research on stereo-
types, character traits, and social biases. Recent empirical data suggests that on the basis of narrow slices of behavior,
we infer character traits (Ames, Fiske, & Todorov, 2011), stereotypes (Ames, 2004; Fiske & North, 2014), form
preferences for people we perceive to be like us (Aboud, 2003; McLoughlin & Over, 2017), and activate associations
between social groups and various features (Ashburn
‐
Nardo, Voils, & Monteith, 2001). These processes can be
spontaneous (i.e., the inferences or associations are formed rapidly and without reflection) or deliberative (i.e., the
inferences and associations emerge in reflection and are subject to reflective consideration). Importantly, these
cognitive processes deeply influence how we interpret others' behavior and how we expect them to behave in the
future or in counterfactual scenarios. This research suggests that stereotypes, character traits, and social biases play
an important role in mindreading (Spaulding, 2017a; Westra, 2017a, 2017d).
All of these arguments and sources of evidence point to the conclusion that there is more to mindreading than
just belief and desire attribution.
3
Indeed, there seems to a new school of thought emerging from these various
threads that aims to articulate a more comprehensive model of how we understand other agents. In the next section
I will present a few different accounts of how we understand others that go beyond the simple belief
‐
desire model of
traditional mindreading theories.
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