In our ordinary lives, we regularly think about what others are thinking and doing. I try to figure out why my mother
daughter's preschool teacher thinks about her, or I think about how a friend will handle an impending divorce. We
think about others' beliefs, desires, intentions, preferences, character traits, values, etc. all the time in part because
we find this intrinsically interesting but also because we find this useful for understanding what others' will do and
perhaps how we can manipulate the situation for our own purposes. Our ordinary ways of understanding what others
. The specific practice of attributing mental states to others in order to explain
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
. 2018;e12526.
and predict their behavior is called
mindreading
. I shall focus mostly on mindreading in this paper, though much of
what I have to say applies to discussions of folk psychology more generally.
Traditionally work on mindreading has focused on beliefs and desires. Most empirical and theoretical work is
devoted to figuring out when children develop the concepts of desire and belief, whether individuals with autism
possess and employ concepts of belief and desire in the same way as neurotypical individuals, whether non
‐
human
animals have the concepts of belief and desire, and how we employ these concepts to explain and predict others'
behavior. In fact, the focus often is narrower than the belief
‐
desire model of action explanation. Though some
theoretical and empirical work concerns the concept of desire and desire attributions, the majority of the work
in mindreading is either also or exclusively on
belief
. See, for instance, the vast literature on the standard and non
‐
linguistic false belief tasks (e.g., Bloom & German, 2000; Onishi & Baillargeon, 2005), discussions of whether
chimpanzees and other primates understand belief (e.g., Povinelli & Vonk, 2003; Tomasello, Call, & Hare, 2003),
various cognitive architecture proposals (e.g., Goldman, 2006b, Ch. 7; Nichols & Stich, 2003, Ch. 3), debates about
whether we infer or perceive others' beliefs, etc. (e.g., Gallagher, 2008; Spaulding, 2015). In all of these cases and
many others not mentioned, attributing beliefs has come to be a stand
‐
in for mindreading in general.
There are several reasons why belief attribution has come to dominate the mindreading literature. The discussion
of contemporary discussion of folk psychology started with Premack and Woodruff's (1978) study on whether chim-
panzees attribute beliefs to other chimpanzees. This foundational paper ignited much philosophical and empirical
work on belief attribution. On the basis of Premack and Woodruff's study, Dennett (1978) and others theorized
about what kind of evidence would demonstrate that an agent possesses the concept of belief and could therefore
attribute a belief to others. Up to this point, empirical tests could not distinguish merely apparent belief attribution
from genuine belief attribution. Dennett reasoned that to tell whether an agent genuinely can attribute beliefs, we
have to test whether she can attribute
false
beliefs. If an agent can attribute a false belief, then she surely grasps that
beliefs represent the world a certain way and that some agents' beliefs can
misrepresent
the world. Dennett's
theoretical work inspired Wimmer and Perner (1983) to develop what is now known as the standard false
‐
belief task.
In one version of this experiment, subjects watch a puppet put a toy in one location and leave the scene. Then they
watch another puppet enter, move the toy, and leave the scene. Finally, they watch the first puppet return to the
scene, and they are asked where the first puppet thinks her toy is. This experiment revolutionized research on folk
psychology because, unlike previous experiments, it could distinguish merely apparent belief attribution from genuine
belief attribution.
Psychologists discovered that before age 4 virtually all children systematically fail the standard false
‐
belief test,
but after age 4 virtually all children pass this test. Intriguingly, it was discovered, children with autism and deaf
children raised in non
‐
signing households
failed
these tasks (Peterson & Siegal, 2000). These results inspired decades
of research on who, when, how, and why we attribute belief. Even the critiques of the standard false
‐
belief task
(Bloom & German, 2000) inspired more work on belief comprehension
–
non
‐
linguistic versions of the false
‐
belief
task (Baillargeon, Scott, & He, 2010; Onishi & Baillargeon, 2005) and vigorous debate about whether these non
‐
linguistic false
‐
belief tasks really are tracking beliefs (Apperly & Butterfill, 2009; Heyes, 2014). The standard false
‐
belief task played an immensely influential role in shaping the empirical and philosophical literatures on folk
psychology.
In addition, the discussion of folk psychology seems to have the implicit rationale that belief attribution is a
difficult and fundamentally important aspect of folk psychology. Many other folk psychological practices depend
on belief attribution,e.g., engaging in and recognizing pretense (Currie & Ravenscroft, 2002; Nichols & Stich, 2003,
Ch. 2), social coordination (Goldman, 2006a, pp. 279
–
280), engaging with fiction (Weinberg & Meskin, 2006), etc.
Thus, the idea seems to be that once one grasps belief attribution, the rest of folk psychology will fall in place, and
so the research should focus on issues surrounding belief attribution.
1
Although I agree with some of the ideas that implicitly motivate the focus on belief, I shall argue in this paper that
there are many reasons to resist using belief attribution as characteristic of mindreading. Although we do attribute
beliefs to ourselves and others, and belief attribution is significant and incredibly useful developmental achievement,
2 of 11
SPAULDING
our mindreading practices go far beyond belief and even desire attribution. As it turns out, mindreading is much more
complex, diverse, and interesting than the mainstream literature on mindreading indicates. Indeed, there is a new
school of thought developing that aims to expand the conception of mindreading beyond just belief and desire attri-
butions. This paper explores the reasons for this expansion and the exciting prospects for future research on the
broader conception of mindreading.
In the next section, I describe several distinct motivations for moving the mindreading discussion beyond belief
and desire. These range from concerns about the cross
‐
cultural prevalence of the belief concept to studies on folk
psychological explanatory practices to psychological data on other sorts of mentalistic attributions. In Section 3, I
present a few accounts of mindreading that go beyond the belief
‐
desire model. In Section 4, I briefly outline some
exciting applications of broader conceptions of mindreading.
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: