The Industrial Sector
New hydroelectric stations in the 1950s greatly improved the supply of energy in
the Uzbek part of the Ferghana Valley. Among these were the Kairakkum plant on
the Syr Darya and the Uchkurgan plant on the Naryn River. During the same time
a gas pipeline was laid from Andijan to Ferghana and Tashkent, an oil-refinery was
built in Kokand, and many other new factories were established.
16
The sprawling
Andijan factory Andijaniramash, which produced bulldozers, scrapers, trenchers,
pumps and other irrigation equipment, was commissioned in 1956.
17
Dramatic feats of production were achieved through Stakhanovite methods. In
Kyrgyzstan’s Osh province over ten months in 1953, workers at the Tashkömür
coal mines overfilled production goals by 120–130 percent, increasing total coal
production by 10 percent.
18
This was matched by similar achievements elsewhere
in Ferghana,
19
together with other such campaigns by silk producers,
20
lathe opera-
tors in Jalalabad,
21
tunnelers,
22
and cotton cleaners.
23
Such industrial campaigns
attracted many workers, with a construction project at the Kairakkum hydroelectric
plant alone drawing 3,200 enthusiasts.
24
In Uzbekistan, industries in the Ferghana
province out-produced all other provinces except Tashkent.
Of all these mass-organized campaigns, by far the most important in the Ferghana
Valley and in all Central Asia was Khrushchev’s mobilization to increase cotton
production beyond levels achieved in America. In response to this, many industries
in the valley switched to meet the cotton industry’s needs. In short order new spe-
cialized firms arose to repair tractors and combines, and to produce containers to
transport bulk cotton. The Kokand super-phosphate plant was completed and other
fertilizer mixing facilities were constructed in Andijan, Namangan, and Kokand,
all to serve the cotton industry.
25
In 1959, some 2,280 boys and girls in Ferghana province competed for the title
of “shock worker.” Parallel with this, a female-led crew at the Kokand Silk Fac-
tory managed to do seven hours of work in six hours, churning out a prodigious
total of 137,200 garments in one year. Such achievements were rewarded with
improvements in health care, education, and social life. Their negative effect was
to reduce the number of products for the sake of efficiency, impose a stultifying
hyper-specialization on workers, and reduce or eliminate quality controls.
26
146 NAZAROV, SHOZIMOV
The fifth Five-Year Plan (1951–55) increased capital expenditure in Leninabad
from 5 million 1955 rubles to 20.5 million.
27
Over the following half-decade Tajiki-
stan’s Ferghana region achieved notable successes, with the construction of many
new industrial enterprises, including meat packing plants and garment factories.
Thanks to these and such other achievements as the construction of a reinforced
concrete bridge over the Syr Darya River, nearly half of workers and public servants
in Leninabad were rewarded with a seven-hour work day.
28
During these years there was still an abundance of semi-skilled jobs, which
in 1957 constituted 50 percent of all industrial posts in Tajikistan’s Ferghana
region
29
and similar percentages in the Ferghana provinces of Uzbekistan and
Kyrgyzstan. In 1955, 340 units of uninstalled equipment stood idle in Kyrgyz
factories due to a shortage of skilled workers to install them.
30
The opening of
a weaving factory, silk plant, auto repair factory, and brewery in Leninabad in
1956, and then the commissioning of the large Kairakkum generating plant the
following year, signified a genuine industrial boom in the Ferghana Valley.
31
By
the beginning of the 1960s many more factories had begun operating, including
a pre-cast panel housing construction factory in Kairakkum, milk and cotton
factories in Leninabad, a low-tension hardware factory in Arakman, and an
electromagnetic plant in Isfara.
32
A significant part of the skilled labor force that fueled this boom did not come
from local communities, but was attracted to the valley from Russia and Ukraine
with the lure of high salaries. Such imported labor was plentiful in the Andijan oil
fields,
33
at a pioneering rubber factory in Namangan province, and at the Electro-
Apparat factory in Andijan, which opened in 1962.
34
Most of these imported Slavs
eventually left the region after independence.
The boom drew attention to the need for specialized training to prepare workers
in modern industrial skills. A review of the Uchkurgan butter factory in Namangan
province showed that 75 percent of the work force took courses to increase their
qualifications, mainly through night classes, correspondence courses, and study
groups. Several hundred workers mastered a second trade, and both a Science and
Technical Institute and a Society of Inventors and Innovators operated at the plant.
As a result, the factory had the lowest rate of injury in Uzbekistan and the lowest
rate of absenteeism. Practices at the Uchkurgan butter factory were replicated in
all industrial enterprises in the republic.
The “inventors and innovators” movement developed vigorously in the Ferghana
Valley. Workers at the Ferghana textile factory presented 371 proposals to improve
production, 78 percent of which were introduced at a cost-savings of 25,200 rubles.
There were 1,800 such proposals throughout the Ferghana province in 1961, most
of which were implemented. Success built on success, with the result that from
1959 to 1965 the number of workers and public servants in Andijan province grew
by 51 percent and in Ferghana province by 39 percent.
35
Many found employment
at the new shale oil factory in Ferghana or the new truck factory or cellulose plant
at Namangan.
36
In 1968 nearly 300 branches, laboratories, construction crews
THE KHRUSHCHEV AND BREZHNEV ERAS 147
and scientific management groups, comprised of more than 2,000 people, were
established in Namangan alone.
37
Thanks mainly to developments during World War II, the Tajik part of the Fer-
ghana Valley (Leninabad province) already had a strong industrial infrastructure.
When 2,420 workers descended on Kairakkum from all over the USSR to build the
hydroelectric plant there,
38
they unleashed a fresh boom, especially after the plant
opened in the following year.
39
By the 1970s the Leninabad region accounted for
more than a third of Tajikistan’s industrial production and a significant portion of
its agricultural output. Coal mining was carried out at Shurab; oil was developed
at Neftabad and Kim; lead and zinc were mined and refined at Altyn-Topkan,
Kurusay, and Kansay; tungsten and molybdenum were mined at Chorukh-Dairon;
and bitumen and mercury at Ansobskii Mountain. These large enterprises were
balanced by a host of light industries producing everything from wine and flour
to carpets and knitted wear.
Most of these enterprises could not utilize their full production capacity due to a
chronic shortage of skilled labor. To address this problem, the same types of training
programs we met in the Uzbek sector were created: industrial and technical courses,
schools of progressive labor methods, versatility training. At the Leninabad Silk
Combine alone, some 10,260 people went through various forms of re-training.
40
The Tajik part of the Ferghana Valley enjoyed a significant advantage over the
other parts of the republic because most of Tajikistan’s elite hailed from there. The
fact that the region already had a developed industrial base gave it a further edge
over other regions in Central Asia. These factors combined to bring the USSR’s
new uranium mining industry to Leninabad, even though large deposits of uranium
could be found elsewhere. Thanks to this, Tajikistan’s Ferghana region played an
important role in the USSR’s successful creation of its first atomic bomb, which
was made from uranium from Leninabad province.
Security concerns dictated that the Soviet uranium industry operate under strict
bonds of secrecy. Thus, in Tajikistan’s Ferghana region the cities of Taboshar and
Chkalovsk and the town of Adrasman were all closed to outsiders. The government
maintained a rigorous register of everyone working or living there, and closely con-
trolled all entry and exit. At the same time, these cities were granted a special status
that gave them access to financial and other resources unavailable to others.
The mining and refining of uranium in the Ferghana Valley continued unabated
from 1945 to 1983. The grave and lasting downside to this otherwise lucrative
industry was that the authorities established and operated the uranium mines with
little or no concern for their impact on nearby communities or adjacent water re-
sources. Many tailing pits and landfills of waste from the uranium facilities were
concentrated in the Leninabad province of Tajikistan and the Jalalabad province of
Kyrgyzstan, both in the Ferghana Valley. Nearly 54.8 million tons of radioactive
waste accumulated in the above-mentioned closed cities alone.
The uranium-mining town of Gafurov is situated close to the city line of Lenina-
bad (now Khujand). Anyone passing by there today can see 200 meter-long and
148 NAZAROV, SHOZIMOV
fifteen-meter-high mounds of uranium tailings right by the road. Even today, many
Leninabad residents know nothing about them. Chkalovsk, which once exuded
prosperity, is today a dreary place emanating a chill from the past.
41
Chkalovsk
has four tailing pits. Like their counterparts in Gafurov and Taboshar, many of
them have high gamma-ray levels. Most people avoid walking near Taboshar and
consider it a dangerously radioactive zone. None of these pits are protected from
wind and water erosion. Worse, they are all located on or near waterways flowing
to the Ferghana Valley. This has led to a significant increase in many diseases that
are directly related to the province’s high levels of radioactivity.
In the Soviet period, uranium was most efficiently mined and refined at Chka-
lovsk. But once its factory suspended operations, the city seemed to be frozen in a
death-like trance. The town has attractive residential areas, but life has fled from
it. In many respects it is a microcosm of Tajikistan’s Ferghana region. On the one
hand, Chkalovsk seemingly has everything: industry, urban infrastructure, trans-
port, and communications. On the other hand, the dynamism that once reverber-
ated there, and without which real life is untenable, has largely vanished. Within
these formerly closed cities, one feels the echo of all the successes and failures,
the victories and defeats, of Soviet development under Khrushchev and Brezhnev
in this part of the Ferghana Valley.
Industrial development in the Kyrgyz sector of the Ferghana Valley flourished
at the same time as its counterparts in the Uzbek and Tajik areas. In the 1970s, Osh
province (which then included the present Osh, Jalalabad, and Batken provinces)
produced a quarter of Kyrgyzstan’s industrial output and included 28 percent of
Kyrgyzstan’s industrial workers. Between 1940 and 1973 industrial production
there grew by 9.7 times. All the oil and gas, and 95 percent of the Kyrgyz Repub-
lic’s coal production, were concentrated in the Ferghana region. Coal was mined
at Kyzyl-Kiya, Sylyukta, Kokh-Yangak, Tash-Kumyr, and Almalyk; oil and gas
came from the deposits of Mailuu-Suu, Uzbaskent, and Changyr-Tash; mercury
came from Haydarken; while antimony came from near Frunze. Metal-working
and mechanical engineering thrived in Osh and Jalalabad; the largest light bulb
factory in Central Asia operated in Mailuu-Suu, and in Jalalabad there were plants
producing construction materials and asphalt. Silk and cotton were processed at Osh,
Karasu, Jalalabad, and Aravan. Other plants producing butter, beer, shoes, furniture,
processed meat, textiles, foot ware, and furniture were spread across the Kyrgyz
sector of the Ferghana Valley. The modern Chukurgan and Toktogul hydroelectric
plants functioned on the fast-running Naryn River.
42
With such a technical base,
it is no wonder that plants in the Kyrgyz part of the valley were among the first in
the region to use electronic data processing machines.
43
Overall, the development of the Ferghana Valley’s industrial potential during
the Khrushchev and Brezhnev years is one of the brightest pages in the region’s
history. With Ferghana natives prominent in the republic-level administrations of
Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, the budgets of all three Ferghana states
assigned major resources to the valley throughout this era.
THE KHRUSHCHEV AND BREZHNEV ERAS 149
A negative aspect of this otherwise positive picture is that most of the industrial
activity in all three republics was focused in a very few areas. By the 1980s, some
65 percent of Uzbekistan’s industrial capacity was concentrated in 5 percent of
its territory. Of the 100 small and medium-size cities in Uzbekistan, factories and
workshops were nonexistent in 40 of them, while the number of mills and light
industries in the other 60 was insignificant.
44
Thus, the entire industrial sector of
Kuva in Ferghana province in the early 1980s consisted of small silk and furniture
factories, cotton mills, bread combines, and canneries. Many cities had only one
or two factories.
45
A similar situation could be observed in the Tajik and Kyrgyz
parts of the Ferghana Valley. Industry was poorly developed in such smaller cities
in Tajikistan’s sector of the valley as Sovetabad, Shurab, and Penjikent, and also
in the analogous cities of Kyrgyzstan’s Ferghana region, such as Batken, Nookat,
Karasu, and Khok-Yangak.
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