Other Religious and Extremist Groups of Ferghana
The opening of Ferghana’s borders and the relatively free access to the region by
various foreign missionaries brought new groups to the fore and added new political
dimensions to the already complex life of the region. Two of the new extremist sects
warrant our particular attention because they are at once the most characteristic and
most symbolically significant: Hizb ut-Tahrir (HT) and Akromiya, the group that was
responsible for the Andijan tragedy of May 13, 2005. The first of these belongs to the
group of religious-political organizations that arrived in the Ferghana Valley from
abroad, while the second arose locally, albeit under the strong influence of the same
HT. Both originated in the late 1980s and early 1990s, amid the revival of Islamic
identity, and the intensified social and political activity of the masses of believers.
Hizb ut-Tahrir
Few international writings on the religious situation in Central Asia in the last
fifteen years fail to mention the Hizb ut-Tahrir party, mostly in rather mild terms.
93
However, from the moment HT announced itself through illegally produced leaf-
lets, it elicited a very different set of responses within the region. Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan regarded its activities as a direct threat to their own stability, although
Kyrgyzstan initially did not think it posed any dangers and hoped that in time it
would become a normal part of civil society.
HT’s parent party, Hizb ut-Tahrir al-Islami (Islamic Party of Liberation), had been
founded in Palestine in 1952–53 as a party of Muslim intellectuals engaged in the
Palestinians’ struggle against Israel. Its founder, Taqiuddin al-Nabhani (d. 1977), was
an active member of another no less well-known religious-political party of Egypt,
al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun,
94
the ideas and clandestine methods of which he freely ap-
propriated. The heat of the fight with Israel and what HT members considered the
lack of Muslim help for the Palestinians radicalized HT members and strengthened
their sectarian fervor. Their core ideas included the following:
All the troubles of Palestinians and other Muslims are caused by the fact
that Muslims since the times of the Prophets had “mortal enemies”: e.g., Jews,
“polytheists,” and Christians.
Today these enemies are using all means to prevent the political and spiritual
unification of the Muslims, which is essential if they are to resist their enemies,
manage their resources, and Islamize the world.
The broader the scope of HT’s activities, the more enemies they will have.
328 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
In addition to Jews and Christians they now face American and world imperial-
ists, communists, “polytheists,” etc. The only salvation for Muslims is to restore
the caliphate as a religious and political entity.
95
HT was, and is, notably vague on the political and theological nature of the
caliphate it seeks to restore. Leaflets produced by the party leave the impression
that it deliberately keeps it all at a vague mythologized level, avoiding specifics.
This plays on the sacral aura that surrounds early Islam and turns the past into a
kind of magic wand to be used against the abundant economic, social, and cultural
problems of the present, indeed, as an alternative to hard, daily work.
Leaders of Muslim countries who understand that the restoration of the caliphate
is a totally unrealistic idea also appear on HT’s list of the enemies of Islam. Un-
fortunately, this fact collides with what HT claims as its tactics, namely “peaceful
propaganda, the penetration into society, the ‘fixing’ of the political consciousness
of Muslims, and the creation of conditions under which Muslims will be ready to
transfer power to the caliph.”
HT’s many statements about its “peaceful methods” of political struggle are, to
put it mildly, questionable, given the known episodes of their activities in Jordan,
where HT organized unsuccessful military coups in 1968, 1969, and 1971. HT
organized another attempted military coup in 1972 in southern Iraq.
96
Prominent
members of the party do not deny these attempts
97
for, as al-Nabhani explained at
the time, “if a society rebels against its regime, then to eliminate the latter, even
by military force, is not an act of violence.” The use of violence was considered
acceptable “whenever it was necessary in order to come to power.”
98
Such self-
justifications, even when hidden behind modern rhetoric about “noble goals,” were
very reminiscent of the early Bolshevik slogans of Vladimir Lenin.
99
They could
not conceal the ultimate goal of HT: political violence. True, it was defined as only
the third phase of the struggle, with the first two being peaceful and non-violent.
100
But what does this matter if their ultimate goal is a political coup, even through
violence? When HT emissaries attempted to persuade leaders of several Muslim
countries (Libya and Iran, for example) to enlist them to work toward reestablish-
ing the caliphate, they failed.
101
HT party leaders clearly realize that it is inconceivable that Muslim political
leaders would accept their ideas, with all their ambiguity and questionable religious
status. So if the first two “non-violent” phases are doomed to fail, what does it matter
if violent revolution is only the third phase, when that phase is all but inevitable?
102
No wonder that HT explicitly demands the overthrow of existing regimes in Muslim
countries.
103
Yet this does not solve anything, because popular opposition to HT
in most Muslim countries, including those in Central Asia, is even stronger than
the government’s opposition.
104
Moreover, we know that most theologians find it
unacceptable on religious grounds.
105
Hence, as HT in Central Asia and elsewhere
comes to accept the hopelessness of its struggle, it could abandon its “pacific”
verbiage and end up embracing terror.
106
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 329
Not only politicians but also most ordinary believers in Muslim countries where
HT is active oppose both its almost maniacal desire to save Islam and Muslims and
its clumsy notion of restoring the obsolete structure of the caliphate. In most of
the Muslim countries where HT operates it is banned. The predictable response of
HT is to search for new enemies of Islam, this time solely among Muslims. Party
ideologists define the new enemy as:
The lack of political consciousness among the majority of Muslims. This means
that Muslims ceased to feel themselves as a united religious community, the
sensation of which was lost from the time when the so-called caliphate ceased to
exist, e.g., the theocratic state which alone can restore the real rights of Muslims.
In the absence of the caliphate (and, consequently, a “voluntarily elected caliph”)
the current Muslim countries can be Islamic only in name.
Even though most theologians have come to accept the diverse forms of estab-
lished Islam as natural and theologically legitimate,
107
HT considers them to be
both utterly illegitimate and the chief obstacle to the future unification of modern
Muslims against the common enemies.
HT’s conflicts with Muslims in its region of origin and with the entire Muslim
world do much to radicalize the party. Sociologists might call this an attitude of “con-
tentiousness,” a condition where the potential for social and political conflict can be
sustained regardless of the positions of the contending groups or countries.
In 1989 Abdurashid Kosimov (b. 1960) formed a local branch of HT in Andijan,
the largest city in the Ferghana Valley.
108
It is said that he came to the attention of
HT during one of the first mass pilgrimages to Mecca, and was immediately named
head of the first branch of HT in Uzbekistan. Kosimov studied for some time in
the home of the father of Wahhabism in the Ferghana, Abduvali-qori Mirzaev, and
gained a solid knowledge of Arabic. He translated and published an Uzbek edition
of Taqiuddin al-Nabhani’s Nizam al-Islam (The System of Islam).
109
Not until 1993 did the local HT group stabilize and issue a charter to the public.
110
It then took steps to form branches elsewhere in the region, although its main centers
of activity remained the Ferghana Valley and Tashkent. Far from seeking to legalize
itself, HT promptly denounced officials of the government as the “henchmen of Jews
and Communists” (or of Americans and Russians), and called on all “Muslims who
serve them” to “turn away from such rulers and choose a true caliph from their own
world.”
111
The overwhelming majority of local clerics rejected this, however.
HT’s structure in Central Asia is simple. A representative of the region
( mu’tamad)
112
is appointed by the qiyadat (political council or politbureau), headed
by the Supreme Amir of the party. The mu’tamad (sometimes called also amir)
appoints his assistants ( mas’ul) as leaders in the districts and large cities; these in
turn appoint their assistants, the mas’ul yordamchisi.
113
Under the mu’tamad is a
regional council ( shuro), which convenes at times and venues set by the mu’tamad.
The council includes mas’uls and the collector of donations or treasurer, and the
person responsible for publications.
330 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
At the mid-level is a musa’id and his assistant ( naqib), appointed by the ma’sul
to head a district or large neighborhood ( mahalla). The naqib actually administers
the locality, along with a treasurer reporting to him, who is also responsible for
distributing literature. The naqib also works through assistants to oversee small
groups of four or five people ( khalq) working with a teacher or mushrif. From such
groups are elected reliable messengers ( choparlar) who link the middle and lower
ranks of the organization. Only the senior management has the power to initiate
communications between the top and middle ranks, while the various persons at
the lower and middle ranks typically do not know one another. This atomization
and its accompanying communication barriers serve as an obvious precaution
against arrests.
It is tempting to evaluate the activities of HT in the Ferghana Valley on the
basis of interviews that local amirs have given to journalists. But over the past
half-decade members of HT have come to view such interviews as part of their
informational campaign and hence as propaganda, which leaves published litera-
ture, leaflets, and articles in party journals as the best source of evidence on HT’s
activities. Yet even this source must be treated with caution, because it is known
that certain leaflets that exude moderation were written and issued for the explicit
purpose of supporting human-rights organizations that were denying the extremism
of HT and related groups.
In 2003 a local branch of HT released a brochure titled “The Caliphs” (Khali-
falar). Here the anonymous author seeks to refute the reasoning of a medieval
theologian from the region, Najm ad-Din Abu Khafs ‘Umar an-Nasafi (d. 1142),
who had used the Sayings to back his argument that the caliphate had existed
only for thirty years and that Muslims thereafter had been ruled by padishahs and
amirs
in other words, by secular rulers. This conception, which accurately reflects
the realities of governance in the Islamic world, was adopted by a majority of local
Hanafi theologians and helps account for the political peculiarity of the local form
of Islam. It is therefore no accident that local theologians and officials alike quote
Nasafi when disputing HT claims. To refute Nasafi, the unknown local author of
“The Caliphs” invokes comments by a fourteenth-century writer, at-Taftazani.
Over time, HT’s regional (mainly Uzbek) adherents found themselves in con-
flict both with the local conservative Muslims and with the government.
114
All
three governments in the Ferghana Valley, and especially the Uzbeks and Tajiks,
had no desire to see a repetition of the clashes with the Wahhabis and therefore
instituted tough measures against HT. This produced a loud outcry from certain
international human-rights organizations that believed that just because HT had
been banned by several European countries was no reason to consider it extrem-
ist. Typically, these defenses of HT and similar parties were based on a complete
ignorance of their history and international and regional activities, and a limited or
non-existent knowledge of their published literature. Often their only knowledge
of the voluminous literature is the few leaflets created specifically for consumption
by these groups and therefore placed in their hands by HT. The absence of radical
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 331
anti-Semitic or anti-Christian slogans in these sheets differs sharply from those
distributed among the ordinary believers in the local languages. These leaflets ad-
dressed to ordinary members of the party and local audiences provide a far more
reliable index of HT’s true views and activities than its statements regarding its
commitment to peaceful methods.
These brochures and leaflets initiate the reader into a very private and mysterious
world, one that possesses the secret to the “liberation of Islam,” the “purification
of the faith,” and a “return to true Islam.” Even though other groups may have
similar goals, HT seems deliberately to have isolated itself from all other groups
of believers, not just the conservatives. In the end, whenever a religious-political
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