In Afghanistan: From Guerrilla Struggle to a Theological
Justification for Jihad
The interpretation of the concept of jihad poses a serious challenge to Muslims in
general and to Muslims of Central Asia in particular. Radical and terrorist groups
largely ignore spiritual interpretations of the term (as in greater jihad). Conversely,
the radicals and terrorists justify and sacralize the religious and military signifi-
cance of jihad as a war against infidels by referring to the Qur’an and hadiths of
Mohammed, as well as to certain medieval works. Those theologians who disagree
with this limited interpretation defend their position by turning to the same sacred
texts. Their argument is endless and futile.
The fact that Islam recognizes no intermediaries between the individual and
God exacerbates the polemic. The Qur’an and Sunnah are open to a considerable
diversity of views and interpretations,
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yet no institution or office has the power to
define the boundary between orthodoxy and heresy. Few theologians have doubted
their own right to do so, however, and many feel it their duty to point out that any
position contrary to theirs leads directly to unbelief or delusion.
Even relatively moderate Sunni theologians divided over the meaning of jihad.
For example, the famous Sunni theologian al-Baghdadi (d. 1037) defined it as
“the fight against the enemies of Islam, until they adopt Islam or pay the jizya (the
special tax levied on non-Muslims).”
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Meanwhile, the well-known Shafi’i theo-
logian and Sufi, Abu-Hamid al-Ghazali (d. 1111), emphasized solely the spiritual
interpretation of jihad.
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In Central Asia it was mainly Sufis and faqihs (legal scholars) who addressed
the issue of jihad and identified its various interpretations. Clashes with people
of other religions and Russian colonization brought to the fore the concept of
jihad as a war against infidels. This view arose once more in Central Asia on the
eve of the collapse of the USSR, this time in its most aggressive form. It soon
drove from the field all other interpretations of the term, and especially the ideal
of spiritual self-perfection. This religious and military understanding of jihad had
many distinctively Central Asian features, all epitomized by the further develop-
ment of the IMU.
By emigrating to Afghanistan in 2000, the IMU fighters had moved to what was
for them the most favorable environment possible. Their broad ties with the Taliban
government and later with al-Qaeda expanded. Both exercised a growing ideologi-
cal influence over the IMU, with 2000 and 2001 being their most productive years
in terms of the issuance of propaganda magazines, proclamations, translations of
religious tracts, and videos.
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Yuldosh by now realized that their previous defenses of jihad had been random
and primitive. He therefore created his own council of religious leaders, which
consisted mainly of fellow Uzbek immigrants with good theological educations.
The purpose of the council was to devise a religious justification for their jihad
and to make theological and legal decisions implementing it, then to introduce
324 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
these into the lessons taught by the mujahideen.
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Yuldosh appealed to the IMU
as follows:
Soon we will start our jihad, and we must therefore have an understanding what we
are doing, basing it on the sharia and fearing only Allah. There are some among us
who know about [jihad] so we must learn from them. The main weapon of our faith
is to know the true dogmas. If we strengthen our real faith and study the various
rulings on jihad, we will never lose our path. Therefore, those of our teachers who
are responsible for lessons on religion should teach with special responsibility and
effort. And we appeal to everyone, from Chiefs to the cooks and bakers, to master
all knowledge relating to jihad. If we firmly master these skills, then Allah will
be satisfied, and that is our goal. We must not be lazy about this, for only through
such knowledge of jihad do we know our God. Only with this knowledge of jihad
will we understand dogma ( aqida) and learn what is allowed and what is forbidden
( halal wa haram). With that knowledge we will make jihad. Let us be ready to go
to Allah.
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May Allah make us the true heirs of the Prophet. Amen!
Theologians of the IMU did not take their religious arguments for jihad and
their justification of martyrdom solely from the ideological clichés of the Taliban
or al-Qaeda, but began independently developing their own positions. This process
went forward on two levels. First, the theologians appealed to the Qur’an and
hadiths
to legitimize jihad. In doing so the IMU theologians limited themselves
to attempting to relate the texts to the situation in Central Asia and particularly in
Uzbekistan. Second, the IMU theologians took note of the extensive literature on
jihad, translating some of the classics primarily into Uzbek and preparing them for
publication. One such work was by the fourteenth-century Syrian theologian Ibn
Nahhasa, who had closely analyzed the legitimacy of jihad, rules of warfare, the
division of booty, and the treatment of prisoners and infidels.
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The man who translated these texts, Abu Mansur Ahmad, included comments
intended to link the document with the present. At the end he appended a small
statement of his own, from which the following is drawn:
A thousand regrets . . . , but Muslim men and women are losing their conscience
and religion, and have begun to imitate their enemies. And most of all it is
regrettable that a community that calls itself “Muslim” has lost its hatred and
abhorrence of Christians and other infidels. They are mired in sin, and their
hearts do not ache because of it. We are on our knees, but we think we are hold-
ing ourselves upright.
O dear brother! You see our current situation well. We do not fulfill what our
great sharia commands of us. We have forgotten what our attitude toward the
infidels should be. We do not even remember that we must make our religion the
supreme value, reclaim the power we have lost, reclaim our rights, and reclaim
our self-respect. And that we can achieve this only with weapons in our hands.
In their effort to legitimize their actions, IMU ideologists advanced the notion
of “abhorrence of Christians and other infidels.” Such passages are obviously
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 325
meant to consolidate the image of the enemy on religious grounds and thereby to
strengthen the mujahideen’s readiness for confrontation. Aggressive militancy also
informs the calls for a “return to the power” and “regaining self-respect.” Such
clichés were drawn from international literature on global jihad readily available
in print and via Internet. That Yuldosh could afford to prepare and print the vari-
ous magazines, translations, pamphlets, and proclamations that embodied these
notions, and even to set up his own video studio, attests to the solid funding he
was receiving at the time.
Thus supported, IMU ideologues pored over sacred texts in search of additional
maximalist arguments to support jihad and the special status of martyrs. This put an
end to the rather casual approach to the ideological and spiritual training of earlier
militants. Now IMU teachers and theologians brought forward arguments drawn from
the Qur’an and hadiths and medieval theological literature. They also set forth the
requirements for jihad in the general context of Muslim countries and of Uzbekistan
in particular. This new trend was particularly evident in lectures and articles by IMU
ideologist IMU, Zubayr ibn ‘Abd ar-Rahim. The following is typical:
The Muslim world lives under oppression. Some Muslims live in countries
where the infidels rule, while others live in countries under the influence of
America, with its anti-Islam policies . . . The belief of these (Muslims) in Allah
is therefore far from perfect . . . If the Muslims [of Uzbekistan] can perform the
rituals of faith are unable to fulfill its demands in political terms. . . . it means
that only some of the commandments the Qur’an orders are being realized, the
rest remaining only on paper.
. . . In order to spread Islam to the entire world, we need a state living ac-
cording to the absolute rule of sharia law. If there is a religious duty for ritual
ablution ( tahara) before prayer, there is also a duty to rid the civil administration
of the influence of infidels and reestablish it on the basis of a truly Islamic order!
Weakness in fulfilling this cannot be justified in terms of the intrigues of the
Jews or that America is helping the CIS countries in the fight against Muslims,
or the fact that the infidels have nuclear bombs. Anyone who tries to justify his
inaction with that kind of thinking . . . “should beware of the power of God!”
(Qur’an, 8:36).
Under the influence of harmful policies, the many millions of Muslims in
Uzbekistan are forgetting their religion. The ulamas there are well aware of this
situation, but act as if they are standing on a hill and calmly watching the Mus-
lim community fall into the abyss of disbelief. Instead of showing the Muslims
the right way, they live as if in greenhouses, writing books that seek solutions
to minor questions and entering into disputes over them, while the community
of believers is heading into the abyss. This is happening all over the world . . .
Which is why we must declare that if in a particular Muslim community there is
no inspiration for jihad, that community can no longer be called Muslim.
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At the end of his article, Zubair writes about the importance of forming a
mujahideen worldview that would guarantee victory in any confrontation with a
strong opponent. Jihad in the sense of a war against infidels is not only the key to
326 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
such a worldview but the only legitimate form of Islam and of a correct Islamic
community.
Thus, in the Ferghana Valley a radical ideology that included the IMU’s mili-
tarized program came into being. This deepened the schism with other Muslims
of the region, whom, for the sake of convenience, we call “conservatives” on ac-
count of their belief that the reopening of mosques, new opportunities to receive
religious education, and official recognition of the spiritual values of the religious
heritage sufficed to enable the community to thrive. The conservatives were no less
intolerant of “aliens” than the radicals,
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and were quick to pin the Wahhabi label
on anyone who advanced a non-traditional understanding of ritual or the status of
Islam in Uzbekistan.
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This further sharpened the religious schism.
The formation of the IMU and similar organizations did not result solely from
confrontations between believers and the state, for an intra-confessional conflict
was also unfolding. Most believers followed the traditional theologians of Central
Asia, whose positions had developed over the many centuries of the community’s
interactions with non-Muslim political and cultural substrata.
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This is how the
faithful had adapted to the Soviet regime and how they had managed to preserve
their religious and cultural identity. No wonder the majority of Hanafi theologians
(i.e., conservatives) accepted the coexistence of the community of the faithful and
the laicized secular state. In their view, to force the issue of jihad would mean civil
war. Moreover, the IMU’s calls for jihad to recover the Islamic state got no support
from most believers, either in Uzbekistan or in the region as a whole.
The IMU’s move to Afghanistan brought about a certain internationalization
of the organization, with its ideologues now viewing their call for the “liberation
of Islam and of Muslims” as part of a global jihad. Correspondence between the
IMU and Taliban officials, directors of madrassas in Pakistan, and heads of training
camps for militants all consistently stresses the themes of solidarity and unity of
purpose.
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However, IMU contacts with terrorist organizations further discredited
them in the eyes of local Muslims, who viewed the IMU’s allies as religiously
illegitimate Wahhabis. Yuldosh’s leaflets and cassettes try to neutralize this by
stressing that the IMU is still Hanafi, and by claiming they oppose only rites and
rituals not in accordance with the sharia. But the only method for advancing this
struggle, Yuldosh argues, is with weapons in hand, in other words through violence
directed against both unbelievers and wrong-thinking Muslims.
In their response, the majority of theologians often resort to clichés: that Islam
is a religion of peace, and that there is no compulsion in Islam (based on the as-
sertion, “There is no compulsion in religion” [Qur’an, 2:256]). They also argue
that the extremists use religion as a cover for their political ambitions and that they
are not Muslims at all, and hence not authorized to speak in behalf of Muslims.
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All such statements are limited in their effect, however, both because they draw
on the same sacred texts as their enemies and because Islam provides no means of
adjudicating between opposing views.
The fall of the Taliban in Afghanistan inflicted heavy losses on the IMU and led
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 327
to the seizure of some of its military bases. Nevertheless, Internet data confirm that
the Movement succeeded in maintaining some camps and in reclaiming others. So
today, when Afghanistan is once again being reborn as a ground where religious
extremists and terrorists can thrive, there is every reason to believe that the heirs
of Tohir Yuldosh can revive and flourish there.
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