Ferghana in the Early Bolshevik Era: The Difficult Path Between
Secularization and Religion
Evaluating conditions in the Ferghana Valley today, many experts suggest that the
aggressively anti-religious policies of the Soviet regime and then, later, its more
balanced policies, both failed. But the policy of atheism, as well as Soviet ideol-
ogy as a whole, had serious consequences that are reflected in the mentality of
ordinary believers as well as religious leaders, including those who either secretly
or openly support the idea of a separate Muslim identity. These consequences can
be detected in current society across the region, including in the Ferghana Valley.
To declare, as some do, that secular elements of the society (which are products
of the Soviet era) are totally gone is either to misunderstand the current realities
or deliberately to distort them.
To evaluate today’s realities one must gain some historical perspective on them.
When the Bolsheviks launched their policy of atheism, they were seeking above
all to exploit various preexisting conditions that favored what they were trying to
achieve. Even prior to Russian colonization the Ferghana Valley community had
fallen into a protracted crisis, which was manifested in its spiritual life and religious
education.
21
It is true that legislation was based on religious directions from the
302 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
qadis
(sharia courts) and the system of appeals under the Shaikh al-Islam, but in
reality all this failed to protect the rights of ordinary believers.
22
Reacting against this
stagnation, there arose among religious leaders a reform movement—Jadidism—
which declared that the true path out of this crisis was through the reform of education
and the introduction of secular subjects into the school curriculum.
23
Meanwhile, the religious leaders themselves became increasingly discredited
in the eyes of the religious believers, especially those from the lower classes. In
addition to issues of corruption and dishonesty, problems arose from the leaders’
higher social class. Further, the prevailing psychology often equated the very fal-
lible interpreters of religion, or those who passed judgments “in behalf of God,”
with the Faith itself. This made it very easy to advance arguments in support of
the Bolshevik idea that “religion is the weapon with which the exploiters enslave
the working class.”
The Jadids themselves adeptly brought such strong charges against the more
conservative religious clerics. Drawing on clichés spread by the Jadids, one could
remind workers of the “dark past,” when, for example, the religious courts failed
to defend their rights, when polygamy prevailed, and when the imams conducted
themselves arrogantly. The behavior of religious leaders became a subject for
parables, ironical stories, and even special plays that the religious reformers pro-
duced and disseminated.
24
Even after the Bolsheviks displayed the utmost intol-
erance toward these same reformers, and especially those who were proponents
of nationalistic ideas, the majority of reformers continued their harsh criticism
of conservative theologians, and even used this to ingratiate themselves with the
new authorities.
25
Thanks to this the communist propaganda, with its simplistic paradigms, pro-
letarian ideology, and insistent appeals to “the oppressed,” largely succeeded. The
primitive and brutal slogans of the Bolsheviks were directed toward an abstract
“worker” embittered by past injustices. And that worker adopted them, if not with
enthusiasm then at least with tacit approval. He also absorbed the Bolsheviks’
overwhelming nihilism. In virtually all publications of that time, we encounter the
persistently repeated image of an enemy, whether the bey, mullah, ishan , feudal lord,
capitalist, or merchant ( savdogar), who were all referred to as “class enemies” and
worse.
26
The Bolsheviks taught the common citizen that the distinction between
“working people” and “exploiters” was the difference between good and evil, and,
in the end, between legitimate and illegitimate.
27
The raw aggressiveness with which the new power struck out at the “class
enemies” aroused understandable fear among the majority of the population. The
media of the time, and especially the Bolshevik press, emanate this spirit of ag-
gression. Moreover, it effectively exploited the self-criticism of religious leaders
from the era of the khanates and colonial rule.
Acknowledging this, we should not lose sight of the spread of basic literacy,
especially among women, for which the Bolsheviks so desperately fought. Indeed,
the struggle for literacy would appear quite noble were it not for the primitively
ISLAM IN THE FERGHANA VALLEY 303
materialistic motives underlying it, namely, to separate the people from their
religions and traditions. The Communists immediately began to forge their “new
Soviet man” through the establishment of a new and totally controlled education
system, and by destroying religious education, including the so-called new method
proposed by the Jadids. Had they not done this their propaganda would have failed
with the illiterate populist, and their goal of creating a “new man” would have been
called into question. Hence, they closed religious schools and madrassas throughout
the Ferghana Valley and other deeply religious regions. The campaign appeared a
success, but the story did not end there. Surviving documents from both the pre-
and post-World War II eras prove that in most cities of the valley the system of
private religious education was rapidly restored.
28
Much the same had occurred in
the period of Russian colonization.
It was Lenin who conceived the goal of forming a “new type person,” and
soon the Communist Party was endlessly repeating the phrase in its propaganda
materials. To this end, the Bolsheviks’ first task was to struggle against religion,
which it saw as an unwanted ideological rival and enemy. But obliterating the in-
fluence of religion proved more difficult in Muslim areas and where Islam played
a serious role in the life of society. In those places, reality refused to bend to the
Bolsheviks’ slogans.
A switch to the Latin script in 1927–28 and then, simultaneously in all the re-
publics, to the Cyrillic alphabet in 1932 was conceived as a further move to “pull
people from the southern republics of the USSR out from under the dark influence
of religion,” to quote the resolution of the Nineteenth Party Conference of July
16, 1932, as published in Izvestia’s Uzbek edition the next day. The campaign to
emancipate women had the same goal, and found expression mainly in sustained
efforts to do away with the Central Asian version of the hijab, called a paranja.
29
This movement was branded Hujum (Attack), expressing the aggressiveness and
resoluteness with which the authorities went about their work. However, the Hujum
campaign proved particularly difficult in the Ferghana Valley. Only after a full
generation under Soviet rule did Ferghana women undergo full emancipation, and
then only in a primitive, even vulgar manner. Indeed, until the 1970s one would
still encounter women in hijabs in Namangan, Osh, Andijan, and even in the more
industrialized Khujand. And when Gorbachev reduced anti-religious pressures a
decade later, the hijab immediately became widespread once more. In the towns and
villages of the valley today there exists a balance between the “closed” women and
girls (those wearing the hijab), and those not wearing it, who are mostly young. In
addition, one encounters women who wear a simple kerchief, in the Turkish style,
tying its ends at the nape of their necks. These are mainly middle-aged women who
did not want to irritate those from traditional families with a more provocatively
“open” style.
This diversity of women’s dress is now a reality in all the cities of the Ferghana
Valley and no longer overtly represents a conflict of values. However, both women
and men in the Ferghana Valley who favor the hijab do so less as a nod to social
304 BABADJANOV, MALIKOV, NAZAROV
convention than as a response to a sacred order. Whether they respond to such an
order marks a division between true believers and those for whom faith consists
merely of a loosely enforced tradition. This diversity represents the combined
product of the Soviet past and of the collapse of the USSR, when new paradigms
and ideologies entered the valley, along with re-Islamization.
Most people in the Ferghana Valley despised the Bolsheviks but realized that
the old forms of religious life could not be restored. Some embarked on a path
of resistance, or emigrated. Most, however, were amenable to compromise, and
were prepared to demonstrate their conformity on the pages of the official Soviet
press.
30
The Ferghana theologians, however, adopted yet a third position. In their
publications at the time they called for Muslims of different persuasions to cease
mutual recriminations and disputes and to unite. As the Kokand journal Kengash
(The Council) expressed it, “Disputes lead to division and division leads to defeat.”
31
One can readily understand what kind of “defeat” the writer had in mind.
Local religious leaders had to deal with the theologians, most of whom in one
way or another rejected Bolshevik rule. A majority of them concluded that the
imbalance between the Bolsheviks’ forces and their own was too great, and that
they had no other choice than to seek a compromise with the new authorities. For
their part the Bolsheviks initially promised “freedom of conscience and religious
belief.” Those who struck a compromise with the communist leaders were branded
with the offensive title of “red mullahs.”
Later programs of official atheism and the secularization of all spheres of life put
Islam and the community of believers in a very unfavorable position. A significant
number of Ferghana theologians resorted to what Muslims always had considered
a legitimate means of self-defense, namely iztirari holat (in Arabic, al-idtirar) or
feigning political and even ideological loyalty to the powers that be. Other theo-
logians and ordinary Muslims resorted to another solution considered legitimate,
namely hijrat, or emigration from the Dar al-Harb territory where a war against
Muslims is being waged.
32
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