254 BICHSEL, MUKHABBATOV, SHERFEDINOV
radial canals starting out from rivers in order to expand the area irrigated naturally
by flooding. A limitation of this technique was that the amount and time of water
delivery depended entirely on the flow of water in the river.
During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries
irrigation systems
were upgraded and refined. This occurred mainly around major urban centers, in
particular Kokand and Namangan. As discussed in Chapter 2, the Kokand Khanate
also opened up new land for irrigated agriculture in the southeast of the Ferghana
Valley, thereby permanently settling formerly nomadic populations there. This was
achieved by building the first major canal, the Shakhrikhansai, which remained the
biggest one in the Ferghana Valley until the 1940s.
5
Soviet rule brought about significant changes to the system of irrigated agri-
culture in the Ferghana Valley. The early Soviet period focused on linking up the
manifold but geographically separated irrigation areas and their respective water
sources, thereby reducing local dependence on the water flows of any specific river.
The capstone of this endeavor was the construction of the Great Ferghana Canal in
the late 1930s, to draw water from the Naryn River. Further large canals built during
this period were the South Ferghana Canal as an extension of the Shakrikhansai, and
the North Ferghana Canal, also drawing water from the Naryn River.
6
Large-scale
infrastructure development thus considerably amplified the scale of the irrigation
network by regulating the flow and transportation of water over long distances.
7
By means of this technical innovation, the total area of irrigated agriculture in the
Ferghana Valley expanded from 530,000 hectares in 1930 to 650,000 in 1950.
8
The primary aim of this expansion was to increase cotton production which, as
discussed in Chapter 3, already had been pursued by the tsarist colonizers begin-
ning in the 1860s.
The irrigation network received particularly large financial and technological
investments during the rule of Khrushchev (1953–64) and Brezhnev (1964–82).
The main aim of these investments was to expand further the area that could be
used for cotton. This entailed extending and widening the major canals in order to
irrigate such hitherto uncultivated areas as the central Ferghana steppe. To this end,
the government enlarged the Great Ferghana Canal between 1953 and 1962 and in
1964, and constructed the Great Andijan Canal from 1966 to 1970.
Starting from this period, irrigated agriculture also expanded upwards and out-
wards from the plains to the foothills. This was supported by the building between
1970 and 1976 of the Great Namangan Canal.
9
Given the topography of the foothill
zone, such expansion required the installation of pumps to supplement those canals
operating by gravity.
10
Furthermore, the building of seasonal and multi-year storage
reservoirs and dams was undertaken to support this expansion, and at the same
time reduce exposure to draught-related seasonal and annual variations in water
reserves. This gave rise to the reservoirs at Toktogul in Kyrgyzstan, Kairakkum
in Tajikistan, and Andijan in Uzbekistan. As a consequence of these investments,
the irrigated area of the Uzbekistan sector of the Ferghana Valley between 1950
and 1985 increased by a third.
11
LAND, WATER, AND ECOLOGY 255
Irrigated agriculture in the Ferghana Valley was part and parcel of a complex
system of regional economic specialization within the Soviet system. With cotton
being a strategic priority, Soviet leaders designated the lion’s share of the Syr Darya
River’s flow for cotton production in downstream areas. The Soviet Union, like
the Russian Empire before it, encouraged domestic cotton production because it
fostered economic independence from other suppliers and provided a commodity
that could be sold on the world market for hard currency. The Soviet Union there-
fore strongly promoted this seasonally water-intensive crop in the agriculturally
and ecologically suitable lowlands of the Uzbek and Tajik republics, and further
downstream in the Kazakh republic. Conversely, Soviet planners resolved that the
strategic priority in Kyrgyzia was animal husbandry, with a focus on meat and milk
products that could be exported to other republics. In addition, Kyrgyz agriculture
focused on the growing of rain-fed fodder.
Despite
this regional specialization, the Ferghana
Valley under Soviet rule
maintained close economic relations across the lines of republics. Long-term lease
agreements enabled state and collective farms in the Uzbek republic to pasture
their animals in neighboring Kyrgyzstan.
12
Conversely, such agreements bestowed
usufruct rights to the Kyrgyz SSR to access irrigated land in the plains across the
border in the Uzbek SSR.
In the same spirit, water intake and storage facilities were built to serve the ir-
rigation needs of areas beyond republican borders. The most conspicuous example
of this in the Ferghana Valley is the Toktogul Reservoir on the Naryn River. Built
in the 1970s on the territory of Kyrgyzstan, it was designed to provide seasonal and
multi-year water storage to increase the availability of water for irrigation in the
Uzbek and Kazakh republics, as well as to regulate the distribution of water down-
stream in the Syr Darya River basin. Each year the reservoir stored water between
October and March, then released it during the agricultural season extending from
April to September. As was common with reservoirs in the USSR, a hydroelectric
plant was constructed at the same time, enabling Toktogul to generate hydropower
as a kind of by-product of its water management function. In exchange, the energy
needs of the Kyrgyz Republic were met by importing electricity and/or natural gas,
coal, and oil for its thermal power plants from the downstream republics in Central
Asia and from more distant Soviet republics.
13
Thanks to these arrangements, the
Toktogul reservoir, as part of a highly integrated economic network, became the
key element in large-scale cotton growing in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.
14
A highly centralized system of management directed the extensive irrigation
network in the Ferghana Valley during the late Soviet times. In 1946 the manage-
ment of water usage was concentrated in the Ministry of Land Reclamation and
Water Resources (Minvodkhoz).
15
Working in conjunction with the ministries of
Agriculture and Energy, this ministry regulated the distribution of the Syr Darya
River’s water. Minvodkhoz was also in charge of massive projects to open up new
irrigated land, as well as of construction and maintenance of infrastructure in the
Ferghana Valley and elsewhere.
16
It enjoyed near-monopoly control over irriga-