Chapter XXIV: Breaking Away From Bolshevism
At the beginning of the 20th century, Europe imagined itself to be on the threshold of
worldwide enlightenment. No one could have predicted the strength with which nationalism
would explode in that very century among all nations of the world. One hundred years later, it
seems nationalist feelings are not about to die soon (the very message that international socialists
have been trying to drum into our heads for the whole century,) but instead are gaining strength.
Yet, does not the multi-national nature of humanity provide variety and wealth? Erosion
of nations surely would be an impoverishment for humanity, the entropy of the spirit. And
centuries of the histories of national cultures would then turn into irredeemably dead and useless
antics. The logic that it would be easier to manage such a uniform mankind fails by its petty
reductionism.
However, the propaganda in the Soviet empire harped non-stop in an importunately
triumphant manner about the imminent withering away and amalgamation of nations,
proclaiming that no national question exists in our country, and that there is certainly no Jewish
question.
Yet why should not the Jewish question exist — the question of the unprecedented three-
thousand-year-old existence of the nation, scattered all over the earth, yet spiritually soldered
together despite all notions of the state and territoriality, and at the same time influencing the
entire world history in the most lively and powerful way? Why should there not be a Jewish
Question, given that all national questions come up at one time or other, even the Gagauz
Question? [A small Christian Turkic people who live in the Balkans and Eastern Europe.]
Of course, no such silly doubt could ever arise, if the Jewish Question were not the focus
of many different political games.
The same was true for Russia, too. In pre-revolutionary Russian society, as we saw, it
was the omission of the Jewish question that was considered anti-Semitic. In fact, in the mind of
the Russian public the Jewish question — understood as the question of civil rights or civil
equality — developed into perhaps the central question of the whole Russian public life of that
period, and certainly into the central node of the conscience of every individual, its acid test.
With the growth of European socialism, all national issues were increasingly recognized
as merely regrettable obstacles to that great doctrine; all the more was the Jewish question,
directly attributed to capitalism by Marx, considered a bloated hindrance. Mommsen wrote that
in the circles of “Western-Russian socialist Jewry,” as he put it, even the slightest attempt to
discuss the Jewish question was branded as reactionary and anti-Semitic. (This was even before
the Bund.)
Such was the iron standard of socialism inherited by the USSR. From 1918 the communists
forbade (under threat of imprisonment or death) any separate treatment or consideration of the
Jewish Question (except sympathy for their suffering under the Czars and positive attitudes for
their active role in communism.) The intellectual class voluntarily and willingly adhered to the
new canon while others were required to follow it.
This cast of thought persisted even through the Soviet-German war as if, even then, there
was not any particular Jewish question. And even up to the demise of the USSR under
Gorbachev, the authorities used to repeat hard-headedly: no, there is no Jewish question, no, no,
no! (It was replaced by the Zionist question.)
Yet already by the end of the World War II, when the extent of the destruction of the
Jews under Hitler had dawned on the Soviet Jews, and then through Stalin’s “anti-cosmopolitan”
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campaign of the late 1940s, the Soviet intelligentsia realized that the Jewish question in the
USSR does exist! And the pre-revolutionary understanding — that it is central to Russian society
and to the conscience of every individual and that it is the true measure of humanity — was also
restored.
In the West it was only the leaders of Zionism who confidently talked from the late 19th
century about the historical uniqueness and everlasting relevance of the Jewish question (and
some of them at the same time maintained robust links with diehard European socialism.) And
then the emergence of the state of Israel and the consequent storms around it added to the
confusion of naive socialist minds of Europeans.
Here I offer two small but at the time quite stirring and typical examples. In one episode
of the so-called “Dialogue Between the East and the West” show (a clever Cold-War-period
programme, where Western debaters were opposed by Eastern-European officials or novices
who played off official nonsense for their own sincere convictions), in the beginning of 1967 a
Slovak writer, Ladislav Mnacko, properly representing the socialist East, wittily noted that he
never in his life had any conflict with the communist authorities, except one case when his
driver’s license was suspended for a traffic violation. His French opponent angrily said that at
least in one other case, surely Mnacko should be in the opposition: when the uprising in
neighboring Hungary was drowned in blood. But no, the suppression of Hungarian uprising
neither violated the peace of Mnacko’s mind, nor did it force him to say anything sharp or
impudent. Then a few months passed after the “dialogue” and the Six-Day War broke out. At
that point the Czechoslovak Government of Novotny, all loyal Communists, accused Israel of
aggression and severed diplomatic relations with it. And what happened next? Mnacko — a
Slovak married to a Jew — who had calmly disregarded the suppression of Hungary before, now
was so outraged and agitated that he left his homeland and as a protest went to live in Israel.
The second example comes from the same year. A famous French socialist, Daniel
Meyer, at the moment of the Six-Day War had written in Le Monde, that henceforth he is: 1)
ashamed to be a socialist — because of the fact that the Soviet Union calls itself a socialist
country (well, when the Soviet Union was exterminating not only its own people but also other
socialists he was not ashamed); 2) ashamed of being French (obviously due to the wrong
political position of de Gaulle); and, 3) ashamed to be a human (wasn’t that too much?) and
ashamed of all except being a Jew. We are ready to accept both Mnacko’s outrage and Meyer’s
anger, yet we would like to point out at the extreme intensity of their feelings — given the long
history of their obsequious condoning of communism. Surely, the intensity of their feelings is
also an aspect of the Jewish question in the 20th century.
So in what way did the Jewish question not exist?
If one listened to American radio broadcasts aimed at the Soviet Union from 1950 to the
1980s, one might conclude that there was no other issue in the Soviet Union as important as the
Jewish question. At the same time in the United States, where the Jews can be described as the
most privileged minority and where they gained an unprecedented status, the majority of
American Jews still claimed that hatred and discrimination by their Christian compatriots was a
grim fact of modern life; yet because it would sound incredible if stated aloud, then the Jewish
question does not exist and to notice it and talk about it is unnecessary and improper.
We have to get used to talking about Jewish question not in a hush and fearfully, but
clearly, articulately and firmly. We should do so not overflowing with passion, but
sympathetically aware of both the unusual and difficult Jewish world history and centuries of our
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Russian history that are also full of significant suffering. Then the mutual prejudices, sometimes
very intense, would disappear and calm reason would reign.
Working on this book, I can’t help but notice that the Jewish question has been
omnipresent in world history and it never was a national question in the narrow sense like all
other national questions, but was always — maybe because of the nature of Judaism? —
interwoven into something much bigger.
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