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those individuals could be innocent (though they could have been innocent). Yet to
name them
was equal to Jew-baiting.
Next, in January 1962, came the Vilnius case of speculators in foreign currency.
All eight
defendants were Jews (during the trial, non-Jewish members of the political establishment
involved in the case escaped public naming – a usual Soviet trick). This time, there was an
explicit anti-Jewish sentiment from the prosecution: The deals were struck in a synagogue, and
the arguments were settled with the help of wine.
S. Schwartz is absolutely convinced that this legal and economic harassment was nothing
else but rampant anti-Semitism, yet he completely disregards the tendency of Jews to concentrate
their activity in the specific spheres of economy. Similarly, the entire Western media interpreted
this as a brutal campaign against Jews, the
humiliation and isolation of the entire people;
Bertrand Russell sent a letter of protest to Khrushchev and got a personal response from the
Soviet leader. After that, the Soviet authorities apparently had second thoughts when they
handled the Jews.
In the West, the official Soviet anti-Semitism began to be referred to as the most pressing
issue in the USSR, ignoring any number of more acute issues) and the most proscribed subject.
(Though there were numerous other proscribed issues such as forced collectivization, or the
surrender of three million Red Army soldiers in the year of 1941 alone, or the murderous nuclear
experimentation on our own Soviet troops on the Totskoye range in 1954.) Of course, after
Stalin’s death, the Communist Party avoided explicit anti-Jewish statements. Perhaps, they
practiced incendiary invitation-only meetings and briefings; that would have been very much in
the Soviet style. Solomon Schwartz rightly concludes: “Soviet anti-Jewish policy does not have
any sound or rational foundation. The strangulation of Jewish cultural life appears puzzling. How
can such bizarre policy be explained?”
Still, when all living things in the country were being choked, could one really expect
that such vigorous and agile people would escape a similar lot? To that, the Soviet foreign policy
agendas of 1960s added their weight: the USSR was designing an anti-Israel campaign. Thus,
they came up with a convenient, ambiguous and indefinite term of anti-Zionism, which became a
sword of Damocles hanging above the entire Jewish population of the country. Campaigning
against Zionism in the press became a sort of impenetrable shield as its obvious anti-Semitic
nature became unprovable. Moreover, it sounded menacing and dangerous – “Zionism is the
instrument of the American imperialism.” So the Jews had to prove their loyalty in one way or
other, to somehow convince the people around them that they had no connection to their own
Jewishness, especially to Zionism.
The feelings of ordinary Jews in the Soviet Union became the feelings of the oppressed
as vividly expressed by one of them: “Over the years of persecution and vilification, the Jews
developed a certain psychological complex of suspicion to any contact coming from non-Jews.
In everything they are ready to see implicit or explicit hints against their nationality. The Jews
can never publicly declare their Jewishness, and it is formally accepted that this should be kept
silent,
as if it was a vice, or a past crime.”
An incident in Malakhovka in October 1959 added substantially to that atmosphere. On
the night of October 4, in Malakhovka, a settlement half an hour from Moscow with 30,000
inhabitants, about 10 percent of whom were Jews, the roof of the synagogue caught fire along
with the house of the Jewish cemetery keeper, and the wife of the keeper died in the fire. On the
same night, leaflets were scattered and posted across Malakhovka: “Away with the Jews in
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commerce! We saved them from the Germans yet they became arrogant so fast that the Russian
people do not understand any longee who’s living on whose land.´”
Growing depression drove some Jews to such an extreme state of mind as that described
by D. Shturman: some Jewish philistines developed a hatred toward Israel, believing it to be the
generator of anti-Semitism in Soviet politics. I remember the words of one succesful Jewish
teacher: “One good bomb dropped on Israel would make our life much easier.” Yet that was an
ugly exception indeed. In general, the rampant anti-Zionist campaign triggered a consolidation of
the sense of Jewishness in people and the growth of sympathy towards Israel as the outpost of
the Jewish nation.
There is yet another explanation of the social situation in those years: yes, under
Khrushchev, fear for their lives had become a thing of the past for Soviet Jews, but the
foundations of new anti-Semitism had been laid, as the young generation of political
establishment fought for caste privileges, seeking to occupy the leading positions in arts, science,
commerce, finance, etc. There the new Soviet aristocracy encountered Jews, whose share in
those fields was traditionally high. The social structure of the Jewish population, which was
mainly concentrated in the major centers of the country, reminded the ruling élite of their own
class structure.
Doubtless, such encounters did take place; it was an epic “crew change” in the Soviet
ruling establishment, switching from a Jewish élite to the Russian one. It clearly resulted in
antagonism, and I remember those conversations among the Jews during Khrushchev’s era—
they were full of not only ridicule, but also of bad insults against the ex-villagers, the “muzhiks”
who infiltrated the establishment.
Yet altogether all the various social influences combined with the great prudence of the
Soviet authorities by 1965 led to a dramatic alleviation of both the prevalence and the acuteness
of modern Soviet anti-Semitism, which became far diminished from what had been observed
during the war and the first post-war years. It appears that a marked attenuation, maybe even a
complete dying out of the attitude is happening. Overall, in the 1960s the Jewish world view was
rather positive. This is what we consistently hear from different authors. (Contrast this to what
we just read, that “the new anti-Semitism grew in strength in the 1960s.”) The same opinion was
expressed again twenty years later –“Khrushchev’s era was one of the most peaceful periods of
the Soviet history for the Jews.”
In 1956-1957, many new Zionist societies sprang up in the USSR, bringing together
young Jews who previously did not show much interest in Jewish national problems or Zionism.
An important impetus for the awakening of national consciousness among Soviet Jews and for
the development of a sense of solidarity with the State of Israel was the Suez Crisis of 1956.
Later, the International Youth Festival in Moscow, 1957 became a catalyst for the revival of the
Zionist movement in the USSR among a certain portion of Soviet Jews. Between the festival and
the Six-Day War [1967], Zionist activity in the Soviet Union was gradually expanding. Contacts
between Soviet Jews and the Israeli Embassy became more frequent and less dangerous. Also,
the
importance of Jewish samisdat increased dramatically.
During the so-called Khrushchev
thaw period (the end of 1950s to the beginning of the
1960s) Soviet Jews were spiritually re-energized; they shook off the fears and distress of the
previous age of the Doctors’ Plot and the persecution of the “cosmopolitans.” It even became
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