A Mild Thaw
In the meantime, Khrushchev’s policy remained equivocal; it is reasonable to assume that
though Khrushchev himself did not like Jews, he did not want to fight against them, realizing the
international political counter-productivity of such an effort. In 1957-1958, Jewish musical
performances and public literary clubs were authorized and appeared in many cities countrywide.
For example, in 1961, Jewish literary soirees and Jewish song performances were attended by
about 300,000 people. Yet at the same time, the circulation of Warsaw’s Volksstimme was
discontinued in the Soviet Union, thus cutting the Soviet Jews off from an outside source of
Jewish information.
In 1954, after a long break, Sholom Aleichem’s The Adventures of Mottel was again
published in Russian, followed by several editions of his other books and their translations into
other languages; in 1959 a large edition of his collected works was produced as well. In 1961 in
Moscow, the Yiddish magazine Sovetish Heymland was established (though it strictly followed
the official policy line.) Publications of books by Jewish authors who were executed in Stalin’s
time were resumed in Yiddish and Russian, and one even could hear Jewish tunes on the
broadcasts of the All-Soviet Union radio.
By 1966, about one hundred Jewish authors were writing in Yiddish in the Soviet Union,
and almost all of the named authors simultaneously worked as Russian language journalists and
translators, and many of them worked as teachers in the Russian schools. However, the Jewish
theater did not re-open until 1966. In that year S. Schwartz defined the Jewish situation in the
USSR as “cultural orphanhood.” Yet another author bitterly remarks: “The general lack of
enthusiasm and interest from the wider Jewish population toward those cultural undertakings
cannot be explained solely by official policies.” With rare exceptions, during those years the
Jewish actors performed in half-empty halls. Books of Jewish writers were not selling well.
Similarly ambivalent, but more hostile policies of the Soviet authorities in Khrushchev’s
period were implemented against the Jewish religion. It was a part of Khrushchev’s general anti-
religious assault; it is well known how devastating it was for the Russian Orthodox Church.
Since the 1930s, not a single theological school functioned in the USSR. In 1957 a
yeshiva, a school for training rabbis, opened in Moscow. It accommodated only 35 students, and
even those were being consistently pushed out under various pretexts such as withdrawal of
residence registration in Moscow. Printing of prayer books and manufacturing of religious
accessories was hindered. Up to 1956, before the Jewish Passover matzoh was baked by state-
owned bakeries and then sold in stores. Beginning in 1957, however, baking of matzoh was
obstructed and since 1961 it was banned outright almost everywhere. One day, the authorities
would not interfere with receiving parcels with matzah from abroad, another day, they stopped
the parcels at the customs, and even demanded recipients to express in the press their outrage
against the senders. In many places, synagogues were closed down. In 1966, only 62 synagogues
were functioning in the entire Soviet Union.
Yet the authorities did not dare to shut down the synagogues in Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev
and in the capitals of the republics. In the 1960s, there used to be extensive worship services on
high holidays with large crowds of 10,000 to 15,000 on the streets around synagogues. C.
Schwartz notes that in the 1960s Jewish religious life was in severe decline, yet he large-
mindedly reminds us that it was the result of the long process of secularization that began in
Russian Jewry in the late 19th Century. (The process, which, he adds, has also succeeded in
extremely non-communist Poland between the First and Second World Wars.) Judaism in the
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Soviet Union lacked a united control center; yet when the Soviet authorities wanted to squeeze
out a political show from the leading rabbis for foreign policy purposes, be it about the well-
being of Judaism in the USSR or outrage against the nuclear war, the government was perfectly
able to stage it. The Soviet authorities had repeatedly used Jewish religious leaders for foreign
policy goals. For example, in November 1956 a group of rabbis issued a protest against the
actions of Israel during the Suez War.
Another factor, which aggravated the status of Judaism in the USSR after the Suez War,
was the growing fashionability of what was termed the struggle against Zionism. Zionism, being,
strictly speaking, a form of socialism, should naturally have been seen as a true brother to the
party of Marx and Lenin. Yet after the mid-1950s, the decision to secure the friendship of the
Arabs drove the Soviet leaders toward persecution of Israel.
However, for the Soviet masses Zionism was a distant, unfamiliar and abstract
phenomenon. Therefore, to flesh out this struggle, to give it a distinct embodiment, the Soviet
government presented Zionism as a caricature composed of the characteristic and eternal Jewish
images. The books and pamphlets allegedly aimed against Zionism also contained explicit anti-
Judaic and anti-Jewish messages. If in the Soviet Union of 1920-1930s Judaism was not as
brutally persecuted as the Russian Orthodox Christianity, then in 1957 a foreign socialist
commentator noted how that year signified a decisive intensification of the struggle against
Judaism, the turning point in the struggle against the Jewish religion, and that the character of
struggle betrays that it is directed not only against Judaism, but against the Jews in general.
There was one stirring episode: in 1963 in Kiev, the Ukrainian Academy of Sciences
published 12,000 copies of a brochure Unadorned Judaism in Ukrainian, yet it was filled with
such blatant anti-Jewish caricatures that it provoked a large-scale international outcry, joined
even by the communist friends (who were financially supported by Moscow), such as the leaders
of the American and British communist parties, newspapers L’Humanite, L’Unita, as well as a
pro-Chinese communist newspaper from Brussels, and many others. The UN Human Rights
Commission demanded an explanation from its Ukrainian representative. The World Jewish
Cultural Association called for the prosecution of the author and the cartoonist. The Soviet side
held on for awhile, insisting that except for the drawings, “the book deserves a generally positive
assessment.” Finally, even Pravda had to admit that it was indeed “an ill-prepared brochure”
with “erroneous statements and illustrations that may offend feelings of religious people or be
interpreted as anti-Semitic,” a phenomenon that, “as is universally known, does not and cannot
exist in our country.” Yet at the same time Izvestia stated that although there were certain
drawbacks to the brochure, “its main idea is no doubt right.”
There were even several arrests of religious Jews from Moscow and Leningrad – accused
of espionage [conversations during personal meetings in synagogues] for a capitalistic state
[Israel] with synagogues allegedly used as fronts for various criminal activities – to scare others
more effectively.
* * *
Although there were already no longer any Jews in the most prominent positions, many
still occupied influential and important second-tier posts (though there were exceptions. For
example, Veniamin Dymshits smoothly ran Gosplan (the State Planning Committee) from 1962,
while being at the same time the Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers of USSR and a
member of Central Committee from 1961 to 1964). At one time Jews were joining NKVD and
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the MVD in such numbers that even now, after all purges of the 19309s, a few individuals
miraculously remained, such as the famous Captain Joffe in a camp in Mordovia.
According to the USSR Census of 1959, 2,268,000 Jews lived in the Soviet Union. (Yet
there were caveats regarding this figure: Everybody knows that there are more Jews in the Soviet
Union than the Census ever showed, as on the Census day, a Jew states his nationality not
according to his passport, but any nationality he wishes.) Of those, 2,162,000 Jews lived in the
cities, i.e., 95.3 percent of total population – much more than 82 percent in 1926 or 87 percent in
1939.37 And if we glance forward into the 1970 Census, the observed increase in the number of
Jews in Moscow and Leningrad is apparently caused not by natural growth but by migration
from other cities (in spite of all the residential restrictions). Over these 11 years, at least several
thousand Jews relocated to Kiev. The concentration of Jews in the large cities had been
increasing for many decades.
These figures are very telling for those who know about the differences in living
standards between the urban and the rural populations in the Soviet Union. G. Rosenblum, the
editor of the prominent Israeli newspaper Yedioth Ahronoth, recalls an almost anecdotal story by
Israeli Ambassador to Moscow Dr. Harel about his tour of the USSR in the mid-1960s. In a large
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