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What about using trading systems to protect the habitats of species then?



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Positive Development From Vicious Circles to V

What about using trading systems to protect the habitats of species then?
Protecting the habitats that species depend on is more difficult. Since ecological values cannot be 
separated from the land, habitat protection and restoration schemes are not tradable as such. However, 
government, NGOs or industry can, say, pay farmers for credits earned by restoring and managing 
land for native vegetation. In the US, there was some objection to programmes that pay farmers to 


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Eco-service Trading Schemes
take land out of production, due to the work ethic. However, paying farmers to convert degraded 
land to natural habitat and to manage ferals, disease, fire hazards, etc can also foster both rural 
revitalization and land regeneration, so it is a good investment for governments. Such programmes 
could arguably even result in an increase in carrying capacity. The Victorian BushTender scheme in 
Australia set the value of beneficial ecosystems restored by farmers through auctions. An auction 
assures a viable market value by definition; that is, a willing buyer and seller. But habitat protection 
is somewhat complicated by the fact that ecosystems are open systems. Waterways, for example, 
have many upstream sources of pollution, degradation and diminution. The idea of creating a type 
of trading system to protect ecosystems was used to protect wetlands as early as 1972. The US Clean 
Water Act required developers who destroyed a wetland to restore or conserve another wetland area 
elsewhere. On the face of it, restoring one ecosystem to compensate for damaging another sounds 
‘balanced’, but this is not necessarily so.
Couldn’t wetlands trading be net positive if it increased the total area?
If that worked, perhaps. In fact, an exchange rate was applied so that two new hectares of wetland 
had to be restored or created for each hectare destroyed. But this was not very successful in 
ecological terms. From an ecological perspective, each wetland is unique, irreplaceable and wedded 
to a particular location. For example, the destroyed wetland may have an – as yet unidentified 
– endangered species that the new area does not. Similarly, a new artificially created ecosystem is not 
very likely to evolve into a healthy, resilient ecology. In any case, the wetlands provision of the Clean 
Water Act was ineffective in preserving the total area of wetlands. Wetlands continued to disappear 
at an alarming rate. In 1995, to improve the situation, private wetland restoration banks were allowed 
to buy and restore wetlands. Developers who needed ‘points’ to obtain development approvals could 
then buy wetland credits from organizations specializing in wetland restoration. This reduced the 
difficulties of enforcement and monitoring and worked better than the previous system in reducing 
the rate of wetland destruction. However, even if some of these new ‘artificial wetlands’ survive, they 
are seldom as ecologically sound as the ones they replaced.
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A sustainable trading scheme would 
require that the health, resilience and scale of whole systems were increased to the pre-development 
level of biodiversity and ecosystem viability. Trading systems are beginning to make ecological 
restoration possible, but this is mostly through exactions for damage elsewhere.

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