Shouldn’t only those directly affected be considered in assessment processes?
Good design would leave everyone better off than before, a decision rule that we will call the ‘Green
Optimum’ [Chapter 9]. After all, sustainability is about preserving the rights of future as well as
present generations. They are also ‘stakeholders’ in planning decisions. Offset systems allow current
residents to, in effect, ‘negotiate’ compensation. Thus the immediate beneficiaries of development
determine acceptable levels of environmental impacts and reductions in the public estate that future
generations will have to bear. Despite community input, developers can win support for controversial
development by, in effect, ‘buying off’ the local community. For example, Alaska receives about 85
per cent of its revenue from oil royalties, so parochial forms of ‘democracy’ are not likely to prevent
the granting of oil rights to wilderness areas. The fact that local or even aboriginal people decide
what will compensate for the damage to their environment and loss of resource stocks or cultural
heritage does not constitute sustainable decision-making. Compensating current beneficiaries for
future generations’ access to natural resources does not create net positive outcomes. An ecologically
terminal process, over time, violates the rights of future generations to the means of survival. Further,
by allowing the alienation of green field sites and wilderness areas to development, incremental
approvals implicitly assume that we are still operating well within ecological thresholds. But even if
the development is relatively short lived, it changes an ecologically sensitive site for all time. Instead
of allowing offsets for the harm we are going to do in the future, then, sustainability would require
that we reverse and/or offset the harm we have already done [Chapter 11].
It would not be enough. We also have to move towards increasing future options and responsible
choices, which are rapidly disappearing in the built and natural environment. Exactions or impact
fees generally do not cover the direct costs of development to civil society. They only reduce the
public costs of providing services to private development, such as the costs to a city of providing piped
services to new suburbs or shopping malls. This means that developers may be required to provide
some of the services that governments used to provide wholly at public expense to encourage growth.
This approach can only offset negatives, not increase positives. Where such impact fees are negotiated,
the outcome will depend on the relative power of the parties represented at the table – usually just
staff and developers.
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The point at which public benefits appear to outweigh the costs will depend
on precedents, the media and changing power relationships – not the ecological base. Planners have
been losing power since the 1970s (at least in some English-speaking democracies), with the move
towards smaller government.
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Thus if a city council got more concessions from a developer than
they had managed to obtain in recent years, the benefits would be deemed to outweigh the costs.
Planners cannot push for too much, as the developers might react politically or through the courts.
They must, of course, simultaneously placate the community for the same reasons. This is what is
usually meant by the ‘balance’ between conservation and development. We balance off more of the
public estate each year to ‘resolve’ conflict by appeasing current stakeholders.
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Positive Development
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