kṣatri ya
s. When usurpation and regicide occasionally happened, other families
assumed supreme power. The warriors of the nation are well-chosen men of
extraordinary bravery and, as the occupation is hereditary, they become expe-
rienced in the art of war. In peacetime they guard the palace buildings and
in times of war they courageously forge ahead as the vanguard. The army is
composed of four types of troops, namely, infantry, cavalry, charioteers, and
elephant-mounted soldiers. The war elephant is covered with strong armor
and its tusks are armed with sharp barbs. The general who controls the armed
forces rides on it, with two soldiers walking on each side to manage the
animal. The chariot carrying the commander-in-chief is drawn by four horses
and arrays of soldiers march beside the wheels to protect him. The cavalrymen
spread open to draw up a defensive formation or gallop ahead to pursue the
defeated enemy. The infantry, daring men chosen for their boldness, go lightly
into battle, carrying large shields and long spears, sabers, or swords and dash-
ing to the front of the battle array. All their weapons are sharp and keen and
they have been trained in such weaponry as the spear, shield, bow and arrow,
saber, sword, battle axe, hatchet, dagger axe, long pole, long spear, discus,
rope, and the like, with which they practice generation after generation.
Although the people are violent and impetuous by temperament they are
plain and honest in nature. They never accept any wealth without considering
the propriety of the action but give others more than what is required by
righteousness. They fear retribution for sins in future lives and make light
of the benefits they enjoy in the present. They do not engage in treachery
and are creditable in keeping their promises.
Government administration emphasizes simplicity and honesty and the
people are amicable by social custom. There are occasionally criminals and
scoundrels who violate the national law or scheme to endanger the sovereign.
When the facts are discovered these criminals are often cast into jail, where
they are left to live or die; they are not sentenced to death but are no longer
regarded as members of human society. The punishment for those who infringe
the ethical code or behave against the principles of loyalty and filial piety is
to cut off the nose, excise an ear, mutilate a hand, or amputate a foot, or the
offender may be banished to another country or into the wilderness. Other
offenses can be expiated by a cash payment.
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When a judge hears a case no torture is inflicted upon the accused to extort
a confession. The accused answers whatever questions are put to him and
then a sentence is fairly passed, according to the facts. There are some who
refuse to admit their unlawful activities, ashamed of their faults, or who try
to cover up their mistakes. In order to ascertain the actual facts of a case
ordeals are required to justify a final judgment. There are four ways, namely,
ordeals by water, fire, weighing, and poison. In the ordeal by water the accused
person is put into a sack and a stone is put into another sack; the two sacks
are connected together and thrown into a deep river to discriminate the real
criminal from the suspect. If the person sinks and the stone floats his guilt
is proven, but if the person floats and the stone sinks he is then judged as
having concealed nothing. In the ordeal by fire the accused is forced to crouch
on a piece of hot iron and required to stamp on it with his feet, to touch it
with his hands, and to lick it with his tongue. If the charge against him is
false he will not be harmed, but if he is burned he is judged to be the real
culprit. If a weak and feeble person cannot stand the heat of the scorching
iron, he is asked to scatter some flower buds over the hot iron. If he is falsely
charged the buds open into flowers, but if he is truly a criminal the buds are
burned. In the ordeal by weighing the accused is weighed on a balance against
a stone to determine which is heavier. If the charge is false the person goes
down, while the stone goes up; if the charge is true the stone is weightier
than the person. In the ordeal by poison the right hind leg of a black ram is
cut and poison is put into it as a portion for the accused to eat. If the charge
is true the person dies from the poison, but if the charge is false the poison
is counteracted and the accused may survive. These four ordeals are the meth-
ods for the prevention of a hundred misdeeds.
There are nine grades in the manner of paying homage. They are (1) inquir-
ing after one’s health, (2) bowing down three times to show respect, (3) bowing
with hands raised high, (4) bowing with hands folded before the chest, (5)
kneeling on one knee, (6) kneeling on both knees, (7) crouching with hands
and knees on the ground, (8) bowing down with hands, elbows, and head to
the ground, and (9) prostrating oneself with hands, elbows, and head touching
the ground. In all these nine grades the utmost veneration is expressed by
doing only one obeisance. To kneel down and praise the other’s virtue is the
perfect form of veneration. If one is at a distance [from the venerated person],
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The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions
one just prostrates with folded hands. If a venerated person is nearby, one
kisses their feet and rubs their heels. When one is delivering messages or
receiving orders, he must hold up his robe and kneel. The honored person
who receives veneration must say some kind words in return, or stroke the
head or pat the back of the worshiper, giving him good words of admonition
to show his affection and kindness. When a homeless monk receives salutation
he expresses only his good wishes in return and never stops the worshiper
from paying homage to him. One often pays reverence to a great respected
master by circumambulating him once, thrice, or as many times as one wishes
if one has a special request in mind.
When a person is sick he refrains from eating food for seven days, and
during this period he may often recover his health. If he is not cured then he
takes medicine. Medicines are of various properties and have different names,
and physicians differ in medical technique and methods of diagnosis.
At a funeral ceremony the relatives of the departed one wail and weep,
rend their clothes and tear their hair, strike their foreheads, and beat their
chests. They do not wear mourning clothes and have no fixed period of
mourning. There are three kinds of burial service. The first is cremation, in
which a pyre is built and the body is burned. The second is water burial, in
which the corpse is put into a stream to be carried away. The third is wilderness
burial, in which the body is discarded in a forest to feed wild animals.
After the demise of a king, the first function is to enthrone the crown
prince so that he may preside over the funeral ceremony and fix the positions
of superiority and inferiority. Meritorious titles are conferred on a king while
he is living and no posthumous appellations are given after his death. No
one goes to take a meal at a house where the people are suffering the pain
of bereavement, but when the funeral service is over things go back to normal
and there are no taboos. Those who have taken part in a funeral procession
are considered unclean and they must all bathe themselves outside the city
before reentering the city walls.
As regards those who are getting very old, approaching the time of death,
suffering from incurable disease, or fearing that life is drawing to an end,
they become disgusted with this world, desire to cast off human life, despise
mortal existence, and wish to get rid of the ways of the world. Their relatives
and friends then play music to hold a farewell party, put them in a boat, and
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Fascicle II
row them to the middle of the Ganges River so that they may drown them-
selves in the river. It is said that they will thus be reborn in the heavens. Out
of ten people only one cherishes such ideas, and so far I have not seen this
with my own eyes.
According to monastic regulations, homeless monks should not lament
over the deaths of their parents but should recite and chant scriptures in mem-
ory of their kindness, so as to be in keeping with the funeral rites and impart
happiness to the departed souls.
As the government is liberal official duties are few. There is no census
registration and no corvée labor is imposed upon the people. Royal lands are
roughly divided into four divisions. The first division is used by the state to
defray the expense of offering sacrifices to gods and ancestors, the second
division is used for bestowing fiefs to the king’s assistants and ministers, the
third division is for giving rewards to prominent and intelligent scholars of
high talent, and the fourth division is for making meritorious donations to
various heterodox establishments. Therefore taxation is light and forced labor
rarely levied. Everyone keeps to his hereditary occupation and all people
cultivate the portions of land allotted to them per capita. Those who till the
king’s fields pay one-sixth of their crops as rent. Also, in order to gain profits
merchants and traders travel about exchanging commodities and they pay
light duties at ferries and barriers to pass through. For public construction
no forced labor is enlisted; laborers are paid according to the work they have
done. Soldiers are dispatched to garrison outposts and palace guards are con-
scripted according to circumstances, and rewards are announced in order to
obtain applicants. Magistrates and ministers, as well as common government
officials and assistants, all have their portions of land so that they may sustain
themselves by the fief they have been granted.
As the climate and soil vary in different places, the natural products also
differ in various districts. There are diverse descriptions of flowers, herbs,
fruit, and trees with different names, such as
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