Perception
Fig. 9
The perception process (based on Lewicki et al.
2010
, p. 139)
242
I. Geiger
An important perceptual bias that occurs in negotiations relates to the formation
of judgments (frequently about the counterparty) based on little information.
Lewicki et al. (
2010
, p. 140 et seq.) distinguish between stereotyping and the halo
effect. When
stereotyping
, the negotiator judges their counterparty based on a
single piece of information, which signals their affiliation with a certain social
group (e.g. young and female). The perceptual bias then occurs if, in addition to the
obvious information, additional stereotypical attributes of the social group are then
transferred to the counterparty (e.g. young women are generally not engineers). In
the
halo
effects
, additional, unverified features are assigned to a counterparty based
on initial information. For example, a smiling person is also perceived to be more
honest than a person who looks grim, even though there is no correlation between
honesty and smiling (Lewicki et al.
2010
, p. 140). Halo effects may be positive or
negative, so that individual, particularly prominent positive attributes result in the
entire individual being viewed in a more positive light, while individual negative
attributes have the opposite effect. Stereotyping and halo effects are particularly
likely in negotiations (compared to other social situations), as negotiators are
frequently required to quickly obtain an overview of their counterparty and so
can only include a limited number of stimuli. The generalization of the available
information then leads to the described perceptual biases, which can then be
reinforced by the selective perception, following the first impressions, to confirm
the initial image (Bazerman
2002
, p. 34).
Another type of supplementation of missing information to complete a percep-
tion is defined as
projection
. Projection occurs if negotiators assume that their
perception of a situation is the same as the counterparty’s perception. Projection is
problematic in a negotiation situation if it relates to the structure of the negotiation
issues: The assumption that issues that are particularly important for one side, must
also be important for the counterparty, results in a
zero-sum perception
, which
rules out the possibility of differences of preferences and priorities (Thompson and
Hastie
1990
, p. 102 et seq.). If negotiating parties are subject to this kind of
misperception, the likelihood of concluding efficient contracts is limited. A
watered-down form of zero-sum perception if the
illusion of transparency
(Van
Boven et al.
2003
): In this case, the negotiator is aware that the parties have
different priorities, but significantly overestimates the counterparty’s knowledge
of their internal preference structure, even if they have transmitted information of
their preference structure during the negotiation.
3.3.3
Information Processing and Cognitive Biases
Negotiations are at least characterized by the fact that the information available to
resolve the negotiated problem is distributed asymmetrically between, and often
also within the parties. Information (offers, arguments, background facts, etc.) are
exchanged during a negotiation, which partially eliminates the information
asymmetries. For individual negotiators, this means that they are in a constant
process of information acquisition (perception) and
information processing
. Infor-
mation processing is primarily distinguished from information acquisition by the
fact that it ends in a decision and action (Lewicki et al.
2010
, p. 150).
Negotiation Management
243
As the human brain is not only confronted with countless stimuli, and so is
subject to selective perception, but also receives a very high amount of information
that requires further processing, many information processing methods include
mental shortcuts, so-called heuristics. These often need only a very small amount
of information in order to make a decision, which, in most cases, is a good decision
(Cialdini
1993
, p. 3 et seq.). However, these heuristics do not always lead to
accurate judgments and decisions and result in cognitive biases in many cases
relevant in negotiations. A psychologically skilled negotiator can easily turn the
knowledge of cognitive biases and the underlying mechanisms into a tool in order
to influence a negotiation in their favor, or even massively manipulate their
counterparty psychologically (Lewicki et al.
2010
, p. 240 et seq.; Thompson
2005
, p. 163 et seq.). The details of how the latter can occur and how to protect
against it, is impressively described by Cialdini (
1993
) in his book “
Influence—The
Psychology of Persuasion
”.
The following section focuses on the most important of these methods of
processing information, the potential cognitive biases as well as their impact on
the course of a negotiation and the outcome of a negotiation.
Cognitive Reference Points
In negotiations, as situations subject to uncertainty and incomplete information,
negotiators use various
cognitive reference points
to measure the course of the
negotiation and certain offers and solution options for the negotiated conflict. This
allows them to assess the extent to which they will continue to negotiate, reach an
agreement or withdraw from a negotiation. The effect of cognitive reference points
can be most clearly illustrated in a purely distributive price negotiation from a
seller’s perspective, as shown in Fig.
10
. Various information is used as cognitive
reference points to which the seller links their agreement to make a sale: their
reservation point (see Sect.
2.2.1
), potentially available information on a (fair)
market price and their target point (Blount et al.
1996
, p. 2). As the value of these
reference points may differ significantly, the seller’s success in a negotiation is
significantly dependent on which reference point they use to assess the arguments
and offers put forward by their counterparty. This is decisive, as the assessment of a
proposal put forward by the counterparty always takes place relative to a reference
point, never in a vacuum. However, the human brain evaluates positive and
negative deviations from a reference point differently—negative deviations are
recorded as a loss and positive deviations as a gain with regard to the reference
point. In addition, losses receive greater attention than gains; psychologists refer to
losses as having a greater salience. This means that humans expend greater effort on
minimizing potential losses than on maximizing potential gains (Kahneman and
Tversky
1979
). Psychologists refer to this as
loss framing
and
gain framing
. In
negotiations, this means that negotiators, who are attempting to minimize a (per-
ceived) loss, make more aggressive offers or demands, make fewer concessions
and accept the failure of the negotiation more often than negotiators who believe
that they are maximizing a perceived gain (De Dreu et al.
1994
, p. 91).
244
I. Geiger
Whether a negotiator is more likely to minimize a perceived loss or maximize a
perceived gain depends greatly (a) on the type of reference point and (b) on the
position of the relevant reference point. In principle, looking at one’s own reserva-
tion point (RP
S
) as a lower limit is more likely to lead to gain framing and
maximizes the probability of an agreement, but it also tends to concede the
possibility of achieving a higher individual gain. However, if the seller predomi-
nantly aligns to their target point (TP
S
), this increases the probability of a higher
individual gain.
In negotiations, it may also be the case that the individual reference points are
subject to a certain amount of uncertainty. An uncertain reference point is highly
likely to lead to loss framing compared to a secure reference point. The
corresponding consequences in relation to the reservation point were displayed by
Wilken et al. (
2010
): Sellers with
variable cost information
, who used the logical,
secure reservation point in an individual sales negotiation, achieved lower
negotiated profits than those with
full cost information
, who formed an uncertain
estimate of the reservation point and an overall higher reference point (p. 80).
This study also shows that, besides the type of reference point, the level also
plays an important role: The higher the reference point, the more likely it is that a
party will negotiate with loss framing and try harder to avoid a potential loss. This
particularly applies for target points that a negotiating party can easily influence
themselves. As long as the target points remain realistic, i.e. do not lie far outside
the zone of possible agreement, it is sensible for a negotiating party to aspire to high
(specific) objectives. This not only tends to lead to higher negotiated gains in
distributive negotiations (Huber and Neale
1986
, p. 358), but also helps to enlarge
RP
S
Zone of possible agreement
Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |