Co
m
m
uni
ca
ti
ons
structures
Input
/
out
put
structures
MPM process
External input
Input
Output
Output/Input
Output/Input
EPM process
Output/Input
External
Output
Output
Preparation of
workshop/meeting
Holding of
workshop/meeting
Follow-up to
workshop/meeting
Fig. 3
Integrated project management—process description
Project Management
285
5
Launching and Planning Customer Projects
Who can launch a project and how? How is the decision in favor of or against
implementation made, and also the decision regarding the mode of working/the
organizational form? How is the project owner and the project manager selected?
These questions, as well as a series of further ones, arise before the start of a project.
In order to take appropriate account of the importance of the drawing up of
projects, the first phase of projects can be subdivided into an initiation phase and a
launch phase. Figure
5
shows an overview of a possible rough delineation of these
initial process steps in the context of the individual project management process.
5.1
Project Initiation Process
In the initiation process (cf. Fig.
5
) the framework conditions for a project are
clarified. The aim is a project approval based on adequate rough planning. The
project has to be delineated in order to be able to carry out rough planning
appropriately.
It is delineated by defining “What is an objective and what is not an objective of
the project?” (Sect.
7.5
). This facilitates planning, since only what is delineated can
actually be planned.
Project
start
Project
initiating
PM processes
according to PM
guidelines
Financial
controlling of projects
in project preparation
Budget planning
in the
framework of mP
Project
completion
Project
approval
Project
portfolio
controlling
Project
controlling
Project
evaluation
Financial
controlling of projects
in project execution
Fig. 4
The integrated project management process (customer example)
286
W. Rabl
As well as the delineating of projects, a contextual analysis of projects should
also be carried out at this point (Sects.
7.6
and
7.7
) according to the motto “the
project does not exist in isolation”.
The first two process steps represent two decision nodes. The process step which
consists of evaluating the idea/assignment, or the bid/order in this context, leads to
the decision as to whether or not the idea/assignment or the bid is to be taken
forward/the order is to be carried out.
This results in a clear distinction between internal projects and external,
so-called
customer projects
, since the decision as to whether or not to carry out
an order is purely hypothetical. It is nevertheless advisable to carry out this
evaluation step even in the case of a customer order, precisely in order to prepare
the framework conditions appropriately.
In the second step this strategic, subject-specific and business decision is
followed by the question of project-worthiness. In this step it is decided whether
the bid/order is to be carried out in a
temporary project organization
or in the
permanent line organization.
The individual steps are explained in detail below based on the overall overview
of the initiation process.
Project coordination
Project
initiation
Project
close
down
Project management process
Project
start
Post
project
phase
Pre-project
phase
Cyclical project controlling
Process relating to content
Project
initiation
Use &
evaluation
Energy can be directed
through "events"
Project
complete
Project
initiating
(provisionally)
Project
manual
Project
outcome
Fig. 5
Project management process
Project Management
287
Key Message
• Each individual step is obligatory for project approval.
• The relative prominence of the individual steps differs according to the type of
project.
• As well as skipping the initial sub-process consisting of evaluating the idea/
assignment, there may be other defined areas of the initiation process which are
skipped.
In the evaluation of the idea, the decision regarding the implementation of a
scheme is taken.
Three criteria are relevant to the step of evaluating the bid/order (cf. Fig.
6
):
• Conformity to strategy
• Technical feasibility
• Profitability
The issue of conformity to strategy mainly concerns on the one hand the question
of the extent to which the bid/order accords with the corporate strategy, and on the
other hand the issue of optimizing the overall order portfolio. It is the second issue
in particular which involves consideration of resource constraints. These may be
both financial resources and the budget as well as personnel resources.
Project
start
Project
initiation
Impetus for project
(provisional)
project order
Evaluate
inquiry /
task
Project-
worthiness &
categorization
Delineation
& context
analysis
Rough planning
Project
approval
Project
initiation
Fig. 6
Project initiation process
288
W. Rabl
Technical feasibility is governed by the achievability of the objectives and
results of the bid/order, and of the solutions offered by it. As a rule, feasibility
studies are carried out in this regard. In practice, an analysis of technical feasibility
in external bid/
customer projects
has proved to be a key input for risk manage-
ment, and one which may subsequently become a critical factor in the success of the
execution of the project.
The criterion of profitability is a critical success factor in the context of bids and
orders. In addition to comparing costs/benefits over the entire life cycle (business
case), the analysis of uncertainties and the devising and comparison of alternatives
are important work steps which are necessary for showing profitability.
In order to arrive at a final evaluation of the bid/order, holistic consideration of
the three target variables (outputs, deadlines and resources) is required since they
are interdependent. The relevant decision-makers must also specify which of the
three target variables are to be prioritized within the project.
The result of this sub-process is the formal decision to submit the bid/undertake
the order. The detailed results are of course useful for the subsequent work steps in
the initiation process, and in particular for rough planning.
The analysis of project-worthiness and the categorization of projects are an input
for
project definition
and for the decision regarding the option of organizational
form to be used when carrying out the project.
The analysis of project-worthiness and project categorization is an established
tool in most companies. Key criteria for this analysis are (cf. Fig.
7
):
• Organizational units involved
• Duration (throughput period)
• Internal resource expenditure (person days)
• External expenditure (CAPEX, OPEX)
It is above all the number of organizational units involved which is an indicator
of project-worthiness since organizational complexity is a major decision-making
criterion for a project organization.
The throughput period is relevant in this regard since project management
requires an appropriate (extra) expenditure of resources, and it is only worthwhile
for throughput periods of 3 months or more.
Rough
planning
Delineation
& context
analysis
Project-
worthiness &
categori-
zation
Evaluate
inquiry/
assignment
Project
approval
Fig. 7
Sub-process: evaluating the inquiry/order
Project Management
289
The following organizational forms can be set up in the context of project
categorization:
• Scheme/measure
• Project
• Program
These different organizational forms firstly enable the line organization to be
distinguished from the
temporary organization,
and secondly they determine the
degree of organizational complexity in the structuring of temporary information
and decision-making structures.
The following example from the IT/telecommunications sector shows the use of
the project-worthiness analysis and of project categorization in practice (cf. Fig.
8
).
Based on the project-worthiness analysis and project categorization, the project
owner and the project manager are generally named, and the first (core) team
members may also be nominated.
Typical challenges facing the project manager as from this process step in the
initiation phase are a series of issues, including: The subject has so far only been
vaguely described. The expectations that relevant stakeholders have of the project
manager? Who is to be involved in clarifying the project objectives? etc.
The outcome of this sub-process is the decision to handle a bid/order either via a
temporary organization
as a project, or as a program. In addition, the nature and
scope of organizational structures in projects can be specified, and the use of project
management methods and tools can also be agreed.
Key Message
The project-worthiness analysis and project categorization must be specifically
defined in every company. In practice it is necessary to define appropriate criteria
and standards for the project-worthiness analysis and project categorization taking
account of the level of organizational maturity with respect to project management
within the company and the type and complexity of projects involved. The de-
lineation and context analysis process step is the first major step towards drawing up
the project order (cf. Fig.
9
).
Delineation and context analysis is one of the most important
project manage-
ment methods
(Sect.
7.5
).
Project delineation
determines what are the aim and contents of the project, and
what are not its aims and contents. This defining of what is “within” and “without”
is based on the systemic approach and the approach which perceives projects as
social systems.
Rough
planning
Delineation
& context
analysis
Project
worthiness &
categori-
zation
Evaluate
inquiry/
assignment
Project
approval
Fig. 8
Process step: analysis of project-worthiness and categorization
290
W. Rabl
In practice, inadequate
project delineation
can often be observed. Projects are
delineated too restrictively. The necessary complexity is not designed in, or alter-
natively projects are not delineated tightly enough. The project boundaries are then
unclear or “woolly”.
One factor in the success of the delineation of projects is firstly producing a
common viewpoint (“construct”) within the project team. Secondly, it is necessary
to manage the delineation in iterations via the initiation process, the launch process,
and the project controlling process.
Key Message
A common viewpoint within the project team which is shared by the project owner
is a prerequisite for a successful project. The “big project picture” is a criterion of
success.
The analysis of the context includes the description of the framework conditions
in which the project is to be carried out. Key framework conditions are:
• The pre-project phase
• Other projects running in parallel
• Relevant social systems
Ta
sk
Line decision
Standard task
Line scheme
(incl. project-oriented schemes)
Project
Costs: > 500,000
euros
Org. units > 3
Staff: > 300 PDs
Duration: 6 - 18
months
Program
Org. units: 4 reg.
plus 1 centr.
Staff: > 1,000 PDs
Duration: > 12
months
Decision corresponding to
PM guidelines
(PSC, PS, PM)
temporary
permanent
Fig. 9
Project-worthiness analysis (customer example)
Project Management
291
The “story” of how the project came into being is of relevance to the planning
and organization of the project. Typical issues are: What has happened prior to the
launch of the project? What decisions have already been made? What documents
have already been drawn up? Who has supported the carrying out of the project, and
who has hampered it?
Projects which are running in parallel have an influence on the project. There
may be synergies between the projects, or they may conflict with each other if, for
example, several projects compete for constrained resources.
Relevant systems are internal and external environments which have an influ-
ence on the project. Examples of internal environments are organizational units,
management, the works council. Examples of external environments may be
customers, suppliers, and authorities. The active management of the relevant
context is a factor in the success of the execution of the project.
Key Message
The delineation of projects reduces complexity, and the consideration and manage-
ment of context builds up complexity within projects.
The outcome of this sub-process is an initial draft version of the
project order
as
well as the basic input for the planning and organization of the project.
Rough planning is the final step in the project initiation process and rounds out
the draft version of the
project order
(cf. Fig.
10
).
The areas to be focused on in rough planning are the outputs, deadlines,
resources and costs. This “magical” triangle is the common thread running through
the planning of a project (cf. Fig.
11
).
Various
project management methods
can be used for the planning of outputs,
deadlines, and resources/costs. The selection of methods is dependent on the nature
and complexity of the project (Sect.
7.2
). The precondition for rough planning in
Rough
planning
Delineation
& context
analysis
Project
worthiness &
categori-
zation
Evaluate
inquiry/
assignment
Project
approval
Fig. 10
Delineation and context analysis process step
Rough
planning
Delineation
& context
analysis
Project
worthiness &
categori-
zation
Evaluate
inquiry/
assignment
Project
approval
Fig. 11
Rough planning process step
292
W. Rabl
projects is that none of the three areas to be focused on is neglected, and that at least
the following methods of rough planning are available:
• Output planning: Project structure plan
• Time scheduling: Milestone schedule
• Resources/costs plan: Phase plan for resources and costs
Key Message
The methods of rough planning are essential for the quality of the
project order
.
The primary thing which the project structure plan must contain is a complete
description of the outputs to be provided within a phase or property-based structure.
The project structure plan is drawn up within the project team, if it has already been
established, or otherwise within a team of experts. This is intended to ensure a
common understanding, but above all an acceptance, of the contents of the project
and the rough course of the project.
The milestone scheduling is based on the components of the project structure
plan, and it depicts a rough time schedule framework for the project. This planning
step is also carried out in the project/expert team. The common step of defining
milestones involves on the one hand reviewing the quality of the project structure
plan and/or consolidating the common understanding, and on the other hand it
enables a common view to be taken of time-critical events in the project.
The minimum approach to resource and costs planning is phase-oriented rough
planning based on the project structure plan. This involves assigning types of
resources and costs at the initial level of subdivision (phases/objects) of the project
structure plan. A low level of detail is consciously accepted in order to be able to
determine the initial orders of magnitude of the resources and costs involved in the
project without entailing undue workload. The aim of doing so is to draw up this rough
plan with an accuracy of
15 % as regards the approved resource and costs targets.
The outcome of the rough planning is the drawing up of a (provisional)
project
order
which can be submitted for project approval.
Project approval is a gate in which the project start process is commissioned
(cf. Fig.
12
).
Organization
Time
schedules
Resources
Costs
Outputs
Fig. 12
The “magical” PM
triangle
Project Management
293
The objectives of this process step are to reflect on the current planning status,
and to make a decision regarding different options for project execution. In addi-
tion, the profitability calculation is verified. This means that project approval is also
a key quality assurance step in the setting up of projects.
The decision-making bodies involved in project approval are the project owner
at the level of individual project management on the one hand, and the projects
steering group at the project portfolio management level on the other hand.
In a constitutive project owner meeting the
delineation of the project
and the
rough planning of the project based on the
project order
are discussed between the
project owner and the project manager, and a common viewpoint is established. The
project owner formally takes acceptance of the
project order
and prepares the
project order
for project approval by the projects steering group.
In the project approval, the projects steering group reviews the focus and impact
on the corporate strategy based on the current project portfolio. In addition, a
review is undertaken of the resources which are needed, in particular the avail-
ability of the constrained resources that are required. These may be both financial
resources and the budget as well as personnel capacities.
Key Message
The quality of the project initiation process determines the quality of the detailed
planning and the structuring carried out during the project start process.
The outcome of the review is the formal order to undertake the project start
process. A summary of the illustrative initiation process is shown in Fig.
13
.
5.2
Project Start Process
The formal launch of a project occurs when approval to carry out the project is
given by the projects steering group.
The following key challenges arise in this process step: How does the project
manager create workable structures within the project organization with clear
assignments of roles as quickly as possible? How does the project manager transfer
the know-how from the pre-project phase to the project team and produce a
common view of the subsequent action to be taken?
In addition, it is necessary to determine which elements of the planning are to be
worked on further, and in what level of detail. In order to underpin the operative
setting up of the project organizational structures and the production of detailed
output, deadline, resource and cost plans, the communications structures to be used
Rough
planning
Delineation
& context
analysis
Project
worthiness &
categori-
zation
Evaluate
inquiry/
assignment
Project
approval
Fig. 13
Project approval process step
294
W. Rabl
with the project team and the project owner must be determined and corresponding
workshops/meetings carried out, in particular the project start workshop and the
first regular project owner meeting.
The detailed steps in the project start process can be depicted as shown in
Fig.
14
.
In order to establish a project organization, a series of organizational elements
must be set up and implemented:
• Production of an organizational chart
• Definition of project roles
Rough
planning
Delineation
& context
analysis
Project-
worthiness
&
categoriza-
tion
Review and
evaluate idea
Project
approval
Ro
le
s
in
v
o
lv
ed
:
Co
mmu
n
i-
cat
ion m
et
hod:
Re
su
lt
s
Ac
ti
v
it
ie
s:
»
Rough
description of
idea
»
Review
technical
feasibility
»
Review
conformity to
strategy
»
Draw up busi-
ness case
»
Review
project-
worthiness
»
Categorize
project
complexity
»
Appoint PS &
PM
»
Devise 6 steps
(and variants
as applicable)
»
Undertake
environment
analysis
»
Initial risk
assessment
»
Verify 6 steps
&
environment
analysis
»
Initial draft of
output,
deadline,
resource and
cost plans
»
Agree draft
project order
and project
manual with PS
»
Verification of
the business
case
»
Accounter,
Sales
»
Line
department
»
Controlling
»
PS
»
PMO
»
PSC
»
PS & PM
»
Any
designated
PTMs
»
PM
»
Designated
PTMs
»
Experts
»
PS
»
PM
»
Individual
planning
»
One-to-one
discussions
»
Individual
planning
»
One-to-one
discussions
»
One-to-one
discussions
»
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