6
The History of Mathematics Education
Mathematics education in the USSR could not, of course, remain
wholly unaffected by the ideological campaigns that occurred in
the country. Nonetheless, because the government recognized the
importance of the subject for the country’s industrial and military
development, the teaching of mathematics likely suffered less than
other areas from ideological pressure (Karp, 2007). The history of
mathematics education, however, belonged to a different category —
history — in which “the unprincipled and the unideological” or
“objectivism” was generally not supposed to exist. It would, of course,
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be overly simplistic to conclude that “objectivism” really did not exist.
We can point to a number of sound and serious works that appeared
during Soviet years, which were based on the thorough study of archival
material (for example, Prudnikov, 1956). However, many works are of
an entirely different nature, and today’s researchers can thus approach
this material from the vantage point of different traditions.
We will begin this section with the studies of Polyakova (1997,
2002). They can be judged to some degree by the chapter she wrote
for the first volume of this book, which is based on the works just
cited. She has written what is probably the only systematic course in
the history of Russian mathematics education — from the birth of the
Russian state until the Revolution of 1917 — that is accessible to the
general reader today. Her works take into account the conclusions
and findings of several generations of historians of mathematics and
mathematics education, and also include examinations of numerous
educational manuals.
Polyakova’s doctoral dissertation (1998) is devoted not so much to
the history as to the historical preparation of mathematics teachers. The
aim of her research is “to provide a theoretical and practical foundation
for the need to make … historical–methodological preparation a part of
the professional preparation of the mathematics teachers, and also to
identify the conditions that make such preparation effective” (p. 9).
Consequently, relying on numerous works on teacher education,
she demonstrates the usefulness of a special course in the history
of mathematics education. She also proposes several characteristics
that such a course should have, including her own periodization
of the development of mathematics education. Polyakova concludes
by citing an experiment involving interviews with numerous respon-
dents to demonstrate significant improvement in students’ historical–
methodological competence as a result of taking a course in history.
The work of Yuri Kolyagin (2001), a member of the Russian
Academy of Education, is structured as a lecture course in the
history of mathematics education in Russian schools. In contrast with
Polyakova’s books, Kolyagin gives a prominent place to the history
after 1917 and particularly to the recent past, which he witnessed
and in which he participated. Consequently, questions concerning
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education policy are at the center of his attention [it is noteworthy
that, as indicated in Kolyagin (2001), the then head of the State Duma
(Parliament) Committee on Education, Ivan Melnikov, was a reviewer
of Kolyagin’s book]. The author’s idea may be briefly characterized
in the following way. Before the Revolution, schools went through a
successful evolution and, by 1917, they had reached a very high level of
development [as evidence for which the author reproduces the diploma
of his aunt, pointing out that “this document vividly illustrates the
level of preparation in secondary educational institutions” (p. 134)].
However, unfortunately, “left-leaning parties, mainly socialists, got the
upper hand. As is also well known, the leadership of these parties
was predominantly non-Russian” (p. 139). “Homegrown Masons,
who were virtually agents of Western influence,” along with the
“products of the provincial intelligentsia” who had filled up the
cultural vacuum (here, a reference to Lenin makes it clear that
the author means the Jewish intelligentsia), strove to destroy the
existing order along with the whole great spiritual legacy of the Russian
people (p. 139).
Consequently, Kolyagin’s characterization of schools after the
Revolution is unequivocally negative. For the radical restructuring of
schools during the 1930s and the return to pre-Revolution models, he
expresses “thanks to the Soviet government” (p. 161). The following
20 years are described as a golden age of stability, and new reforms
are subsequently labeled as a “storm” (p. 172) and “expansionism”
(of Bourbaki and Piaget, see p. 191 and p. 194, respectively); while
the events of recent decades are characterized simply as “spiritual
aggression” (p. 236). In conclusion, the author again turns to general
issues, explaining that a great divide “runs along the line between East
and West.” On one side of this line stand Russian nationalists and
patriots, on the other are Westernizers — those who “accept no ideals
(except the ‘golden calf’)” (p. 251).
The work of Avdeeva (2005) is structured around historical mate-
rial, but her main aim once again is “to develop a methodology for
the preparation of mathematics teachers … based on the lives and
works of great educators” (p. 4). The great educators chosen by
Avdeeva are K. D. Kraevich, the author of numerous pre-Revolution
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