5
Problem Solving
The basis on which the studies in this section are grouped together and
isolated from the rest is also somewhat artificial: problem solving may
be considered one of the principal themes of all of Russian research.
In one way or another, it is mentioned in virtually every paper on
mathematics education. Prior to the period discussed here, many books
appeared that were wholly devoted to problems and the theory of
solving them (such as Friedman, 1977; Kolyagin, 1977; Metel’sky,
1975; Stolyar, 1974). Problems have been studied from the most varied
angles: several systems have been proposed for classifying problems; a
notion of problem “complexity” (as an aspect of the problem itself)
has been defined; the “difficulty” of a problem has been quantified
as a psychological–pedagogical characteristic (for example, as inversely
proportional to the number of students who have solved the problem);
and the psychological, informational, and structural components of
problem solving have been identified (Krupich, 1992). These and
other aspects of research concerned with the phenomenon of school
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problems and their history have been discussed in Zaikin and Ariutkina
(2007) and Shagilova (2007).
Some time ago, Sarantsev (1995) studied a concept that, in his
terminology, was narrower than a problem: the exercise (“a problem
is an exercise if it results directly in the acquisition of new knowledge,
skills, and abilities” (p. 17), according to his definition). He regards
exercises as the effective vehicles of learning and proposes structuring
the whole education system on exercises. Exercises, according to
him, constitute a means of efficacious and goal-directed student
development (pp. 11–13).
The structure of exercise sets has been studied by Grudenov (1990).
In particular, he focuses on the contradictions inherent in using
exercises of the same type: stable skills cannot be formed without them,
yet their use leads to diminished interest. He sees the solution in the
combined use of a variety of different teaching principles.
The findings of recent studies in the area of problem solving
are described in the proceedings of a special conference devoted to
problems (Testov, 2007).
As for dissertation research, Krupich (1992) aims at “developing
a theoretical basis for teaching school-level mathematics problem
solving” (p. 5). The key words for this study are probably “systemic,”
“cohesive,” and “structural.” Krupich views the problem as a complex
structure or, more precisely, as a conjunction of two structures: an
external structure, i.e. the problem’s actual conditions and the infor-
mation given; and an internal structure, which includes the problem’s
substantive characteristics (including its difficulty). The structural unit
of the learning process, according to him, is the “instructional problem
with a three-part structure: the problem itself, the students’ cognitive
contribution, and the didactic technique used by the teacher” (p. 15).
Krupich analyzes existing textbooks and finds that the problem sets
in them are incomplete, not hierarchically structured in terms of their
difficulty, and so on. (He precisely defines and elaborates on all of
these concepts in his study.) Furthermore, he also proposes his own
classification of problem-solving techniques.
Ryzhik (1993) also addresses what the system of problems con-
tained in a school textbook should look like. His conception includes
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the principle that the system of problems must be interconnected with
(1) the environment (for example, it must take into account social
needs, the state of the various sciences, etc.); (2) the theoretical material
in the textbook; (3) the teacher (for example, by allowing individual
teachers to select what they need); and (4) the student (for example,
by providing for the development of each student). In fleshing out
these principles, Ryzhik proposes several requirements or objectives
for the system of problems contained in the school problem book
on geometry, beginning with the objective of having the problem
book reflect contemporary views of geometry, and continuing with
the objective of forming foundations for research-oriented activity and
invention, as well as the objective of giving students material that
corresponds to their development at any given point and material that
can facilitate their further development. In formulating his theoretical
position, he relies on his experience as the author of numerous
textbooks.
Voron’ko’s (2005) aim is to research students’ investigative activity
in the process of mathematics education, to which end she studies
students’ problem-solving activity. Identifying what she considers to
be the basic types of investigative activity developed in the process
of mathematics education (such as posing problems and formulating
hypotheses), she demonstrates how they may be developed using prob-
lems. Consequently, considerable attention is devoted to classifying
problems and to discussing specific types of problems.
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