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number of Polish schools; in this way, as she contends, the approach
received pedagogical validation.
Gzhesyak’s (2002) work, which also draws on Polish material, is
devoted to a relatively similar issue: teaching with the use of a so-
called system of goal-oriented problems. The construction of such a
system, i.e. a system that corresponds to given pedagogical aims and
thus takes into account the heterogeneity of different classes, involves
a theoretical analysis of the principles of teaching children mathematics
in elementary school. The author carries out such an analysis; in
particular, he proposes a three-part model of a system of goal-oriented
problems, which takes into account (1) the format in which knowledge
acquisition is organized (individual, group, and whole-class), (2) the
level of educational activity, and (3) the type of problems offered
(play, standard, test, methodological) (p. 16). He likewise discusses
the technology of using such systems in teaching. All of these general
approaches were implemented in the actual preparation of various types
of pedagogical materials and the preparation of teachers for working
with them. Tests conducted in classes which employed the experimental
program indicated increased effectiveness in teaching, according to the
author.
Mathematical development begins, of course, before school (even
elementary school). Kozlova (2003) analyzes the formation of ele-
mentary conceptions in preschool children. The course of this for-
mation is determined by many factors, including the teachers’ level
of preparation. Consequently, considerable attention is devoted to
this factor in the dissertation. Kozlova’s dissertation research reflects
her experience in writing a series of books for preschool children
(the titles of which may be translated as Mathematics for Preschoolers,
Smarty Pants, Baby Square, etc.). “For the foundation of the child’s
scientific development, [the author] provides a system of related small
intellectual problems aimed at the formation … of certain intellectual
abilities and skills” (p. 35). Kozlova devotes considerable attention
to the basic concepts of set theory. Visualization and intellectual
activation are presented in the work as central principles for children’s
intellectual development in the field of mathematics and for their
teachers’ professional development. Kozlova makes wide-ranging and
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systematic use of the history of mathematics teaching and of foreign
experience.
Beloshistaya (2004) also analyzes teaching preschoolers (and young
schoolchildren). Pointing out the existence of many contradictions in
the mathematics education of children and, in particular, the lack of
continuity and succession in it, she makes a general argument to the
effect that the central goal of teaching should not be the accumulation
of knowledge, but rather the students’ mathematical development —
understood first and foremost as the formation of a specific style of
thinking. She regards modeling as the principal methodological means
for mathematical development; her view is that modeling must be
widely employed both in elementary school and with preschoolers.
The system of teaching that Beloshistaya proposes has been employed
in a number of schools and kindergartens; she compares test results
from these and control classes to argue for the success of her model.
Golikov (2008) likewise studies the development of mathematical
thinking in young schoolchildren and is concerned with the problem
of providing for continuity in education. In his study, he undertakes
an analysis of the very notion of mathematical thinking, distinguishing
six different approaches to it. He examines the specific characteristics
of the mathematical thinking of young schoolchildren, citing data to
show, for example, that while geometry problems do not exceed 14% of
the total number of problems in elementary school textbooks, in grades
7–9 their share constitutes over 40% (he sees this as one reason for the
difficulty that students have with geometry in these grades). Golikov
also inquires into the influence that a teacher’s pedagogical abilities
have on students’ mathematical development. He favors the use of
dynamic games, which he regards as an important means of developing
thinking; his dissertation devotes considerable attention to these games
and their use. According to data cited by the author, experiments
conducted in schools and colleges in Yakutia have supported his ideas.
In concluding this section, let us consider two more studies
whose titles contain the words “developmental education.” Istomina-
Kastrovskaya (1995), the author of a widely used elementary school
textbook as well as a textbook for future elementary school teachers, has
generalized her work in her dissertation. Actual practice has thus clearly
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confirmed the possibility of teaching in accordance with the principles
which she enunciates. The subject of Istomina-Kastrovskaya’s defense
was a methodological conception and model of a developmental edu-
cation system, along with related approaches to teacher preparation.
Among the features of this conception, we would mention the emphasis
placed on the “necessity of goal-directed and continuous formation
of mental activity techniques in young schoolchildren: analysis and
synthesis, comparison, classification, analogy, and generalization in
the process of assimilating mathematical content” (p. 17). The study
describes the contents of a course which Istomina-Kastrovskaya pro-
poses, along with a system for organizing the educational activity of
young schoolchildren.
The work of Alexandrova (2006) similarly belongs to the author
of numerous popular textbooks, which are based on the ideas of
D. Elkonin and V. Davydov. In line with their theories, Alexandrova
devotes considerable attention to the concept of magnitude as a key
feature in the study of numbers. Her dissertation also analyzes concrete
methodological issues pertaining to the study of a series of other
topics such as solving word problems and studying geometric material.
Experimental trials of her textbooks were conducted in different
cities around the country. The learning activity metrics that she cites
indicate that a noticeable improvement in the effectiveness of teaching
was observed in experimental classes. To cite just one parameter, if
pretests administered in experimental classes showed a score of 54%
for “completeness of knowledge assimilation,” and a score of 55%
when administered in control classes, then following the controlled
experiment, they showed a score of 91% and 65%, respectively (p. 29).
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