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controllable and measurable on both individual, group and department level (Bailey and Kurland,
2002; Bijl, 2009). Work has therefore to become result oriented instead of presence oriented.
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The invisibility of employees asks for managers to trust their employees with their given
freedom (Baruch, 2000; Bailey and Kurland, 2002; Den Hengst et al., 2008; Baane et al., 2010).
Furthermore, if managers are not fully committed to and participating in NWW, employees will not
accept it as well (Thompson et al., 1999; Baruch, 2000; Bailey and Kurland, 2002; Jung et al., 2003;
Bragger et al., 2005; Premaux et al., 2007). This can be a big issue, since managers are often the ones
giving up the most for NWW. Giving up their personal space means that they have to share
workplaces with colleagues possessing a lower hierarchical function. This has several effects that can
cause friction. First of all, the visible status connected to their hierarchical position, which they have
acquired over time, will disappear. Their above average luxurious private workplace will be replaced
by flexible workplaces that are also used by their subordinates. Second, by giving up their own
‘privately owned’ territory, they will have to reduce their personal archive.
Employees need to be able to have the decision to participate in NWW for themselves (Bailyn,
1989). Obstacles for employees can be absence of self-discipline, responsibility or motivation (Jung et
al., 2003) and lack of flexibility, independency and autonomy (Den Hengst et al., 2008), since
structure and certainty will definitely decrease in NWW (Slijkhuis, 2012).
ICT developments allow NWW to be implemented in organizations in both the physical and
virtual world, and for both individual and group work (Avolio et al., 2000; Mansell and Silverstone,
1997). Communication via ICT networks, with clients and colleagues, mainly takes place online
(Renaud et al., 2006). Information needs to be available at any place and any time, with any device,
and is therefore spreading rapidly around the world. We are not only consuming internet and
information, we are also creating it. This is indicated as ‘Web 2.0’ (Baane et al., 2010). The
appearance of the personal computer in the workplace led to a slow but still ongoing decrease in the
traditional use of paper, and an increase in digital forms of information gathering (Mobach, 2012).
The ubiquitous presence of information decreases the necessity of a physical routing. A profound
example of this is the virtual organization (Bosch-Sijtsema and Bosch, 1996). Davidow and Malone
(1992) define a virtual organization as “
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