comparison of grammatical resources and pragmatic practice. A learner who produc-
tively uses only the lexical markers of modality does not use modals to mitigate her
disagreements (Salsbury and Bardovi-Harlig 2000), as (13) shows. This same learner
begins to use
would
and
could
tentatively two months after this example.
(13) Interviewer: Oh, but you’d be such a good mom!
Marta: I
think
Interviewer: Oh, you would!
Marta: Yeah, I don’t like because
maybe
I change my think, my
think (Month 7)
The final examples in this section come from a longitudinal study of the acquisi-
tion of future expression (Bardovi-Harlig 2004). Aggregate-use inventories for the
written and oral production of sixteen learners during a nine- to eighteen-month ob-
servation period show that
will
emerges early and dominates grammatical forms of
future expression, constituting 79 percent of the oral corpus for future expression. In
contrast,
going to
emerges much later and captures only 9 percent of future expres-
sion. Pragmatically, this finding means that in the initial stages of future expression,
learners lack the grammatical means to produce pragmatically targetlike utterances
involving future expression; in other words, at the early stages, learners were unable
to accommodate to the language of the interlocutor.
(14)
Interviewer: What are you going to do for Christmas Break?
Carlos: I will go back to my country on December 8. [L1 Spanish,
month 3.0]
(15)
Interviewer: Are you planning a vacation during, um . . . Spring
Break?
Guillermo: I will go to Mexico in spring break with a friend of mine
[four turns]
Interviewer:
What are you going to do?
Guillermo: Well,
I will go
with that, with, that one group from, from
the /cher/ [church] and:: we’ll
we’ll go about thirty-five people
, and
we
will go to see
the . . . [L1 Spanish, month 6.0]
In these examples the learners use
will
to answer the interviewer’s
going to;
be-
cause of the apparent contrast, the learner responses seem much more determined or
insistent about their plans than the situation warrants. Because the learners use their
only productive future marker, this discourse does not represent an actual contrast,
however. Without a choice between
will
and
going to
, the use of
will
conveys no more
than the future. As a result, what may sound insistent to the outside observer (e.g., the
analyst or the reader) very likely has neutral pragmatic value within the learner’s
interlanguage.
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