(or positions), including but not limited to syntax, repetition, reported speech, and
speech acts.
Bamberg (1997) notes that in contrast to adults’ discourse, the young children
whose discourse he examined did not seem to accomplish Positioning 3, although
“their choices of linguistic constructions to position themselves as characters in re-
ported personal experiences reflect clearly the ability to construct scenarios in light
of discursive purposes such as attributing blame or saving face” (1997, 340–41). Al-
though the child whose discourse I examine primarily constructs positions at the lev-
els of Positioning 1 and Positioning 2, my analysis shows that Positioning 3 also oc-
curs in these excerpts of parent-child narrative discourse: The child collaboratively
(with the help of her parents) evaluates herself as a storyworld character from her
perspective as teller.
Some Features of Narrative that Allow for Positioning 1, 2,
and 3
Through analysis of the excerpts and consideration of past work on narrative dis-
course, I identified four features of the “narratives” I examined that are precursors to
storyworld positioning, or essential for doing identity work on the level of what
Bamberg (1997) calls Positioning 3. One is the action dimension. By
action
, I simply
mean something has to happen. This dimension has been identified and discussed at
great length by others, most notably by Labov (1972), as well as by Linde (1993),
Bruner (1990), and Georgakopoulou and Goutsos (2000), among others.
Another dimension of narrative discourse that is central to creating narrative and
is linked directly to positioning is the
interpersonal
dimension. This dimension re-
lates to the idea that identities are understood in relation to others. This aspect of nar-
rative has been emphasized by several researchers, including Bruner (1990) and
Polkinghorne (1991). Schiffrin (1996, 197) notes that “who we are is sustained by
our ongoing interactions with others, and the way we position ourselves in relation to
those others.” Polkinghorne emphasizes that family members often are the others that
help define the self: “My spouse, children, and other loved ones become indispens-
able partners within my story” (1991, 146).
The next dimension is the
imaginative
dimension. This dimension refers to the
fact that telling a story, in any tense, depends on using the imagination. Bruner (1990,
55) notes that all stories, even “true” stories of the past, “remain forever in the do-
main of the midway between the real and the imaginary.” Chafe (1994, 32) argues
that the imagination (as well as the memory) plays an essential role in any instance of
what he calls
spaciotemporal displacement
. Similarly, Peräkylä (1993), considering
hypothetical “alternate realities” invoked in AIDS counseling sessions, suggests that
imagination facilitates accessing possible future scenarios.
Finally, narratives that are capable of doing identity work through Positioning 3
have an
evaluative
dimension. Labov (1972, 166) identifies evaluation as “perhaps
the most important element” of narrative (in addition to the narrative clause). Evalua-
tion wards off the dreaded question, “So what?” Similarly, Chafe (1994, 77) remarks
that narrative requires a “narrator’s perspective.” Georgakopoulou and Goutsos
(2000) also identify evaluation as a critical feature of narrative, and Linde (1993,
194
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