Initially, conventional experimental psychological tests were used as
tests. In form, they resembled the methods of laboratory research, but the
meaning of their application was fundamentally different. The test method is
widely used. A new step in its development was taken by the French physician
and psychologist A. Binet (1857-1911), the creator of the most popular
at the beginning of the 20th century. series of intelligent
tests.
The
first series of tests, the Binet-Simon Intelligence Development
Echelle, appeared in 1905. A. Binet's scale in subsequent editions (1908.1911)
was translated into German and English. The most widespread was the
second edition of the scale, which differed in that it expanded the age range
of children up to 13 years old, increased the number of tasks, and introduced
the concept of mental age.
In 1904, the French Ministry of Education instructed A. Binet to develop
methods by which it would be possible to separate children capable of
learning from those suffering from congenital defects
and not able to study in
a normal school. The need for this arose in connection with the introduction
of universal education. At the same time, it was necessary to create special
schools for mentally handicapped children. A. Binet, in collaboration with T.
Simon, conducted a series of experiments to study attention, memory,
thinking in children of different ages (starting from three years old). The
experimental tasks carried out on many subjects were tested according to
statistical criteria and began to be considered as a means of determining the
intellectual level.
The second edition of the A. Binet scale served as the basis for the work
on translation, adaptation, verification and standardization
carried out at
Stanford University (USA) by a team of employees led by L.M. Theremin
(1877-1956). The first adaptation of the test scale was proposed in 1916 and
had so many major changes compared to the main one that it was called the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. There were two main innovations compared
to Binet's tests: the introduction of the IQ as an indicator for the test and the
use of a new test evaluation criterion, for which the concept of a statistical
norm is introduced.
The Stanford-Binet scale is designed for children aged 2.5 to 18 years.
It consisted of tasks of varying difficulty, grouped according to age criteria.
For each age, the most typical, average performance indicator was 100, and
the statistical
measure of dispersion, the deviation of individual values from
this average (o), was 16. All individual test scores that fell into the interval x
± a, i.e.
Another innovation of the Stanford psychologists was the concept of a
statistical norm. The norm became the criterion with which it was possible to
compare individual test indicators and thereby evaluate them, give them a
psychological interpretation.
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These features of the first tests limited their distribution. Practice,
however, required diagnosing large masses of people in order to select the
most prepared for
a particular type of activity, as well as to distribute people
among different types of activity in accordance with their individual
characteristics. Therefore, in the United States during the First World War, a
new form of test trials appeared - group testing.
limited to the numbers 84 and 116, were considered normal, corresponding
to the age norm of performance. If the test score was above the test norm
(more than 116), the child was considered gifted, and if it was below 84, then
mentally retarded.
The twenties of the last century were characterized by a real test boom.
The rapid and widespread dissemination of testology was primarily due to its
focus on the prompt solution of practical problems. During
the first half of the
XX century. specialists in the field of psychological diagnostics have created
a wide variety of tests. At the same time, developing the methodological
side of the tests, they brought it to perfection. All tests were carefully
standardized on large samples; testers ensured that all of them were highly
reliable and had good validity.
The next stage in the development of psychological testing is
characterized by a change in the form of the test. All tests created in the first
decade of the 20th century were individual and
made it possible to conduct
an experiment with only one subject. Only specially trained psychologists
with a sufficiently high qualification could use them.
instructions, procedures for conducting and evaluating test results. Testing
began to involve people who do not have real psychological qualifications,
but only trained
The Stanford-Binet scale has become popular all over the world. It had
several editions (1937,1960,1972,1986). The latest version is still in use
today. The Stanford-Binet IQ has become synonymous with intelligence for
many years. Newly created intellectual tests began to be checked by
comparing with the results of the Stanford-Binet scale.
for illiterates and foreigners.
Group (collective) tests not only made the tests of large groups real, but
along with this
allowed for simplification
The need to select and distribute one and a half million recruits to various
services, schools and colleges as soon as possible forced a specially created
committee to instruct A.S. Otis (1886-1963) development of new tests. So
there were two forms of army tests - Alpha (Army Alpha) and Beta (Army
Beta). The first of them was intended to work with people who know English.
Second
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Projective methods represent a specific, rather heterogeneous group of
psychodiagnostic methods of clinical orientation. The latter means not so much
the orientation of projective methods to identify certain anomalies of the
personality, but the ability of the methods to predict the individual style of
behavior, experience and affective response in significant or conflict situations,
to identify unconscious aspects of the personality.
1988) together with H. Morgan. The stimulus material
consists of tables with
images of indefinite situations that allow ambiguous interpretations. The subject
was asked to come up with a short story about what led to the situation depicted
in the picture, and how it will develop.
The history of projective methods is both a chronology that marks
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