southward to the
Arctic Circle
, that is, the line of 66° 33' north latitude,
which slices through Alaska, Scandinavia, and the southern tip of
Greenland as it circles the world. The central Arctic is overlain by the
Arctic Ocean
, which is covered by a relatively thin layer of floating sea
ice, and surrounded by the northern coasts of Asia, Europe,
North
America
, and Greenland. The only large, open connection that the
Arctic
Ocean
has with the other oceans of the world is
between Greenland and
Europe in the North Atlantic, making that region a key link in the global
system of ocean circulations. The largest mass of ice in the Arctic is the
Greenland ice cap, which is 1 mi (1.6 km) thick on average and contains
954,000 cubic mi (3.9 million cubic km) of ice, about 10% of the ice on
Earth— enough, were it all to melt, to raise
sea level
by at least 21 ft
(6.5 m).
The south polar region, the Antarctic, is geographically quite different,
with the continent of Antarctica centered on the pole and completely
surrounded by the Antarctic ocean. All of Antarctica but the tip of its
tail-like Western Peninsula is
south of the
Antarctic Circle
, 66° 33' south
latitude. Antarctica is 98% covered by an ice sheet that is 2.5 mi (4 km)
thick on average and contains 7 million cubic mi (29 million cubic km)
of ice, 90% of the ice on Earth (and 70% of its freshwater)— enough,
were it all to melt, to raise
sea level
by about 200 ft (60 m).
Indigenous peoples
such as the Eskimos have lived in lower-latitude
Arctic areas
for thousands of years, but never had any motive to
undertake the arduous journey to the Pole itself or to explore the interior
of the Greenland ice cap. No human beings visited Antarctica until the
mid-nineteenth century, and there has never been an indigenous
population on that continent. (Today, several hundred people occupy a
number of scientific research stations on the continent, none
permanently.)
In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the Greenland and Antarctic
ice caps have played a central role in climate science, since their layered
ice sheets— formed from hundreds of thousands of years of annual
snowfalls, compressed into ice and buried under later years' snows—
preserve samples of ancient air and, in the varying atomic weights of
their oxygen atoms, a record of air temperatures
at the times their water
fell from the sky. Climate records for the Southern Hemisphere have
been pushed back 800,000 years from the present by deep ice cores from
Antarctica, with researchers hoping, as of early 2008, to obtain cores
going back 1.5 million years. In Greenland, climate records from ice
cores go back over 110,000 years.
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