Governmental examinatios’ answers made by Ali ibn Habibulloh al Ansaari fifth course

The UK and its component.

The United Kingdom and Its Component Parts As it has already been said, the British Isles today are shared by two separate and independent states. The smaller of these is the Republic of Ireland, with its capital in Dublin. The larger, with London as its capital, is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. This long title (usually shortened to the United Kingdom or UK) is the result of a complicated history. The island of Great Britain contains three “nations” which were separate at earlier stages of their history: England, Scotland and Wales. Wales had become part of the English administrative system by the sixteenth century. Scotland was not completely united with England until 1707. The United Kingdom is a name which was introduced in 1801 when

Great Britain became united with Ireland. When the Republic of Ireland became independent of London in 1922, the title was changed to its present form.   ENGLAND The Largest Part of the UK Of the four parts which make up Great Britain England is the largest, the most industrial and most densely populated part of the United Kingdom. Over 46 million people out of the population of the UK live in England. The greatest concentrations of population are in London, Birmingham and northwest industrial cities. The coasts of England are washed by the North Sea, the Irish Sea, the English Channel and the Strait of Dover. No part of England is more than 120 kilometres from the sea. It is interesting to note that the sea has always been important in the history of England. It was a good protection against the attacks of outside peoples. Fishing has always been an important industry, especially in the east. The sea also has a great effect on England’s climate. There are many rivers in England. The longest is the Severn (388 km), the most important is the Thames (354 km). The rivers are of great importance for communication and especially for carrying goods. England is mostly a lowland country. There are upland regions in the north and the southwest, but the rest of England is almost flat. Northern England, Midlands and South England — each part of England is different. Lake District in Northern England with its lakes, mountains and valleys is a favourite holiday resort. On either side of the Pennines the plains of Yorkshire and Lancashire stretch to the sea. Swift rivers that flow down from the hills into valleys are called “dales”. The wool industry is centred in Leeds and Bradford, the cotton industry in Manchester, the iron ore goes to the steel, heavy machinery and shipbuilding industries of Newcastle and other cities. The industries of Midlands with Birmingham as its chief city produce metal goods, from motor car and railway engines to pins and buttons. The Midland plain makes farming land. In South England between Highlands lie Lowlands. In this part of England some of the oldest British settlements and traces of ancient monuments such as Stonehenge are found. London is the chief city of South England.     The Southeast The Southeast is the most densely populated region of England. It is only 11 per cent of the land area of the country, but a third of the total population lives here. Because of this a large part of the region is affected by urban development: housing, factories, offices and a complex network of roads and motorways. However, there is still attractive countryside to be found in all counties outside the influence of London. The south cost has a mild and sunny climate which makes it popular both with holiday-makers and with the elderly, who find it a comfortable area to retire to. The county of Kent is known as the Garden of England because it produces a lot of the fruit and vegetables which are eaten all over the country. The soil and climate make ideal growing conditions. Brighton, on the south coast, is a famous seaside resort. There are entertainments of

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   Collective nouns
   

What is a collective noun? A collective noun is a noun that can be singular in form whilst referring to a group of people or things. Collective nouns are sometimes confused with mass nouns. Groups of people - army, audience, band, choir, class, committee, crew, family, gang, jury, orchestra, police, staff, team, trio Groups of animals - colony, flock, herd, pack, pod, school, swarm Groups of things - bunch, bundle, clump, pair, set, stack

The use of "of" We often say a group of things, such as a bunch of flowers, or a host of golden daffodils.

Some collective nouns can stand alone, such as "Britain has an army", but if the collective noun "army" is used to mean something other than an organized military force, you can say things like "an army of women" or "an army of ants", and even "an army of one". Plural or singular?

When a group is considered as a single unit, the collective noun is used with a singular verb and singular pronoun.

For example - The committee has reached its decision. When the focus is on the individual parts of the group, British English sometimes uses a plural verb and plural pronouns. For example - "The committee have been arguing all morning." This is the same as saying "The people in the committe have been ...." However, if you are talking about more than one committee, then you use the plural form.

For example - "Many committees have been formed over the years." A determiner in front of a singular collective noun is always singular: this committee , never these committee (but of course when the collective noun is pluralized, it takes a plural determiner: these committees ).

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   The USA today
   

USA Today is a national American daily middle-market newspaper published by the Gannett Company. It was founded by Al Neuharth on September 15, 1982. The newspaper ties with The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times for the position of having the widest circulation of any newspaper in the United States, a distinction it had previously held since 2003. According to the Audit Bureau of Circulations, the paper had 1.8 million copies as of March 2012[1] compared with The Wall Street Journal's 2.1 million[1] though the latter figure included the WSJ's 400,000 paid-for, online subscribers. USA Today remains the widest circulated print newspaper in the United States. USA Today is distributed in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, Canada, and the United Kingdom. The newspaper is headquartered in the Tysons Corner, Virginia in Fairfax County.[3] USA Today sells for US $2 at newsstands, although it is often found free at airports and hotels that distribute it to their customers; the paper is also free online.On June 11, 1981, Gannett printed the first prototypes of what would become USA Today.[4] Early, regional prototypes included East Bay Today in Oakland, California, a late-1970s morning edition of the Oakland Tribune, owned by Gannett at the time.

On December 5, 1981, the Gannett Board of Directors approved the launch of the USA Today newspaper.[

On September 15, 1982, USA Today first launched in the Baltimore/Washington, D.C., area for the cost of 25 cents (equivalent to 61¢ today).

In the fourth quarter of 1985, USA Today became the second largest newspaper in the U.S., having reached a daily circulation of 1.4 million.

On May 6, 1986, USA Today started its first international edition via satellite, in Switzerland.

On January 29, 1988, USA Today published the largest edition in its history; this 78-page Super Bowl edition included 44.38 pages of advertising and sold 2,114,055 copies.

In April 1994, USA Today launched a Monday-Friday International Print Edition, rather than Tuesday–Saturday, to accommodate business travelers.

In April 1995, USA Today launched its website: USA Today Online.

In October 1999, USA Today started running ads on its front page.

In 2010, USA Today launched the USA Today API for sharing data with partners of all types.

On January 4, 2014, USA Today acquired Reviewed.com.

In the first quarter of 2014, Gannett began inserting a condensed version of USA Today into 31 other newspapers in its network, thereby increasing the number of inserts to 35. The aim: to shore up USA Today's circulation after regaining its position as the top circulating weekday newspaper in the United States, in October 2013.

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   Compound nouns, singular and plural
   

Words can be combined to form compound nouns. These are very common, and new combinations are invented almost daily. They normally have two parts. The first part tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. The second part identifies the object or person in question. Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different, or more specific, than the two separate words.

First part: type or purpose Second part: what or who Compound noun

police man policeman boy friend boyfriend fish tank water tank dining table dining-table

You have noticed that the compound noun can be written either as a single word, as a word with a hyphen, or as two words. There are no clear rules about this. A good rule of thumb is to write the most common compound nouns as one word, and the others as two words. The elements in a compound noun are very diverse parts of speech. Compound elements Examples

noun + noun bedroom water tank motorcycle printer cartridge noun + verb rainfall haircut train-spotting

noun + adverb hanger-on passer-by

verb + noun washing machine driving licence swimming pool

verb + adverb lookout take-off drawback

adverb + noun onlooker bystander

adjective + verb dry-cleaning public speaking

adjective + noun greenhouse software redhead

adverb + verb output overthrow upturn input

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   UK- Royal family.
   

The British Royal Family is the family group of close relatives of the monarch of the United Kingdom. There is no strict legal or formal definition in the UK of who is or is not a member of the Royal Family, and different lists will include different people. However, those carrying the style Her or His Majesty (HM), or Her or His Royal Highness (HRH) are normally considered members. By this criterion, the Royal Family will usually include the monarch, the consort of the monarch, the widows of previous monarchs, the children and male-line grandchildren of the monarch and previous monarchs, the children of the oldest son of the Prince of Wales, and the wives or widows of the monarch's and previous monarchs' sons and male-line grandsons. Different terms may be applied to the same or similar group of relatives of the monarch in his or her role as sovereign of any of the other Commonwealth realms. For example, for Canada the family is known as the Canadian Royal Family.

Some members of the Royal Family have official residences named as the places from which announcements are made in the Court Circular about official engagements they have carried out. The state duties and staff of some members of the Royal Family are funded from a parliamentary annuity, the amount of which is fully refunded by the Queen to the treasury. The British Royal Family is the family group of close relatives of the monarch of the United Kingdom. There is no strict legal or formal definition in the UK of who is or is not a member of the Royal Family, and different lists will include different people. However, those carrying the style Her or His Majesty (HM), or Her or His Royal Highness (HRH) are normally considered members. By this criterion, the Royal Family will usually include the monarch, the consort of the monarch, the widows of previous monarchs, the children and male-line grandchildren of the monarch and previous monarchs, the children of the oldest son of the Prince of Wales, and the wives or widows of the monarch's and previous monarchs' sons and male-line grandsons.

Different terms may be applied to the same or similar group of relatives of the monarch in his or her role as sovereign of any of the other Commonwealth realms. For example, for Canada the family is known as the Canadian Royal Family. Some members of the Royal Family have official residences named as the places from which announcements are made in the Court Circular about official engagements they have carried out. The state duties and staff of some members of the Royal Family are funded from a parliamentary annuity, the amount of which is fully refunded by the Queen to the treasury.

Members and relatives of the British Royal Family historically represented the monarch in various places throughout the British Empire, sometimes for extended periods as viceroys, or for specific ceremonies or events. Today, they often perform ceremonial and social duties throughout the United Kingdom and abroad on behalf of the United Kingdom. Aside from the monarch, their only constitutional role in the affairs of government is to serve, if eligible and when appointed by letters patent, as a Counsellor of State, two or more of whom exercise the authority of the Crown (within stipulated limits) if the monarch is indisposed or abroad. In the other countries of the Commonwealth royalty do not serve as Counsellors of State, although they may perform ceremonial and social duties on behalf of individual states or the organisation.

The Queen, her consort, her children and grandchildren, as well as all former sovereigns' children and grandchildren hold places in the first sections of the official orders of precedence in England and Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland. Wives of the said enjoy their husbands' precedence, and husbands of princesses are unofficially but habitually placed with their wives as well. However, the Queen changed the private order of precedence in the Royal Family in favour of Princesses Anne and Alexandra, who henceforth take private precedence over the Duchess of Cornwall, who is otherwise the realm's highest ranking woman after the Queen herself.[5][6] She did not alter the relative precedence of other born-princesses, such as the daughters of her younger sons.

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   Plural of proper nouns.
   

The following question may seem to belong in a math lesson, but it really is about English: If you have a BlackBerry handheld device, and you purchase another one (don’t ask me why — you’re the one who bought it), what do you have now? Two BlackBerries, or two BlackBerrys?

Many precedents exist that make the latter seem the obvious choice. In the world of entertainment, some names of achievement awards are nicknamed with the same plural ending: the Grammys, the Tonys, the Emmys. (“The Razzies” is an unfortunate exception; on behalf of the Dailys, I nominate the sponsors of those awards for a statuette featuring an ax embedded in a computer monitor).

And when referring to other brand names based on, or resembling, common nouns with irregular plural forms, this sensible approach applies: Plurals for the names of the car models Camry and Leaf are not Camries and Leaves, but Camrys and Leafs.

Beyond that, however, is the time-honored convention to follow the default setting for pluralizing words in general: adding -s or -es. This is true for the following categories as well:

Names of Nations and Nationalities

Refer to “the two Germanys,” for example, or “the Greeces of the modern and classical eras”). Words for nationalities that end in -i get an -s (Afghanis, Israelis). Note that although The Chicago Manual of Style recommends this style for American Indian tribal names (Hopis), Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary lists both a plural form identical to the singular form for this tribe and others with names ending in vowels (Hopi, Cherokee) and the -s plural form (Hopis, Cherokees). If you’re writing for publication, to be on the safe side, use -s; if you’re self-publishing, it’s up to you.

Personal Names

Write, for example, “three Billys in the same classroom.” Surnames are more complicated, however: The default for names ending in consonants and vowels is the same — more than one Smith is Smiths, more than one Corleone is Corleones, and so on — but names ending in -es or -ez (for example, Jones and Chavez) get an extra -es tacked on: Joneses and Chavezes.

Italicized Names

An italicized proper noun, like the title of a periodical, book, or movie, should have a nonitalicized s appended, as in “three consecutive Washington Posts,” “a stack of Catcher in the Ryes,” and “all three Mission Impossibles,” though it looks less awkward to relax the reference: “three consecutive issues of the Washington Post,” “a stack of copies of Catcher in the Rye,” or “all three movies in the Mission Impossible franchise.”

Exceptions

Nicknamed geographical terms defy this convention, as when the Rocky Mountains are referred to as the Rockies and the Great Smoky Mountains are called the Great Smokies.

The plural forms of names ending in unpronounced -s or -x are identical to the singular form: “The era between the third and seventh Louis,” “The two Lacroix could not have been any different,” though “. . . Louis III and Louis VII” and “The two Lacroix brothers . . .” would be better.

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   William Shakespeare and his role in world literature.
   

William Shakespeare created a new epoch in world literature. The ideas set forth by the Renaissance, the ideology of Humanism are expressed by him in the most realistic way. Shakespeare has faith in Man. He hates injustice. His plays have become popular throughout the world because of his realistic characters. The history of English drama is reflected in Shakespeare’s works. The development of his characters makes him different from his predecessors (Marlowe and others). Shakespeare’s characters don’t remain static, they change in the course of action. More than that, Shakespeare was the first dramatist to mix comedy and tragedy: “The Merchant of Venice” (1596-1597) is called a comedy, though Shylock is in fact badly treated. He has been called the first great tragic figure.

Shakespeare's language was understood even by the common people of those times. The soliloquies in his plays are not long; the dialogues are true to life. Many well-known English sayings come from his works.He had a great influence on the English language and English literature. His work is known for its beautiful language, as well as for its understanding of the way people think and feel. Shakespeare is so great writer that every generation discovers new ideas and social problems concerning the relations of man to man in human society in his plays. Shakespeare’s plays do not grow old with time. His plays are regularly performed in the Royal Shakespeare Theatre.The first memorial theatre, the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, was opened in 1879 in Stratford-upon-Avon. Many plays were staged there and many famous actors started their career in the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. Since then a season of Shakespearian drama can be seen each year in Stratford.Research work and study of Shakespeare's literary heritage by scholars will never cease.The name of Benjamin Jonson is worth mention¬ing in connection with Shakespeare's works. It was Ben Jonson, an actor of Shakespeare's Company and his close friend, who published Shakespeare's plays in 1623. Jonson was not only an actor, he was also a dramatist. He wrote more than twenty plays, some of them were staged at "The Globe" by Shakespeare's Company. Jonson scorned many of the other drama¬tists of his time, but not Shakespeare. He was fond of him:

Soul of the Age! The applause! delight! the wonder of our stage! My Shakespeare, rise!

Ben Jonson believed in the unity of action, time and place. He himself followed this rule, and was proud of his plays. More than that, Ben Jonson was a talented producer of masques which were the real performances with different plots and characters, dancing and music.  Shakespeare's cont Shakespeare (Baptized April 26, 1564 – April 23, 1616) was an English poet and playwright, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's preeminent dramatist. His surviving works consist of 38 plays, 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and several shorter poems. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright. Shakespeare was born and lived in Stratford-upon-Avon. From 1585 until 1592 he began a successful career in London as an actor, writer, and part owner of the acting company the Lord Chamberlain's Men. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, where he died three years later. Few records of Shakespeare's private life survive, and there has been considerable speculation about his life and prodigious literary achievements.

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   Prepositions expressing relationships in time
   

Prepositions of time

English has nine common prepositions of time : only one of these, since, can also be used as an adverb. In other cases, another word or phrase, sometimes quite similar, must be used.

Prepositions Adverbs

Before beforehand, before that, earlier, previously

After afterwards, then, later, subsequently

by thereby

in therein

at whereat, (thereat), whereupon

since since

for

during meanwhile

until

Examples:

I'm playing football before lunch ; but earlier I have an English lesson

He goes to Paris after London;  after that he's going to Geneva.

The package must arrive by the end of the week  / .... by Friday.

I'm leaving in five minutes.  /  I like going to England in the summer.

We're having lunch today at 12.30.  /  Everyone applauded at the end of the concert.

Online ticket sales began at 8 a.m, whereupon the whole programme crashed.

I've lived in London since the start of 1995  /  .... since I was a child. 1

I'm going to New York for a week in the summer

He worked in Dubai for three years.  / ... for many years. 2

During the holidays, he won the National Lottery.3

   He's getting a new apartment tomorrow; meanwhile he's staying in a hotel.

My brother's staying in London until Friday.

Notes:

1.  Since is used with moments in time, or with units of time, but not with numeric quantities  We cannot say:  since three weeks.  Since can also be used as an adverb, with no following noun, and sometimes strengthened with ever, as in : .

2  For is used with numerals (or undefined quantities),   See Since and for

3. During is used with periods of time; it is not used before numerals.

Other Prepositions - manner and other relations

 English has seven common prepositions of manner, relation or  agent:  against, among, by, for, with, without, except

Examples

Manchester United are playing against Real Madrid next week.

He was just one among many candidates.

The Harry Potter books were written by J.K.Rowling.

I've just bought a present for my mother.

I'm going to England next week with my girlfriend.

You can't play football without a ball

I told everyone except my brother..

And a few more prepositions:

Apart from these common prepositions, English has several more words or phrases that can be used as prepositions.

  A few examples:

    Apart from,  following, amid,  via,  per,

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   Tajik National Heroes
   

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   Typical verb endings
   

Verbs can also sometimes be recognized by their position in a sentence.

In the following two sentence frames, only a verb can be put into the empty slot.         

Often, prefixes and suffixes (affixes)  will signify that a word is a verb.  For example, the suffixes -ify, -ize, -ate, or -en usually signify that a word is a verb, as in typify, characterize, irrigate, and sweeten.  Prefixes such as be-, de-, or en-  may signify that a word is a verb, as in bestow, dethrone, and encourage.  

These affixes, often inconsistent from verb to verb, are called derivational affixes. Added to a word, they either change the word's part of speech or change the word's meaning

  

The base form of a verb is derived from the verb’s infinitive:  to  +  verb

      Four suffixes consistently added to a verb’s base create all forms of a verb used in all tenses:

1. -s          creates 3rd person singular / present tense  (He talks.)

2. -ing       creates the present participle / used with be  (He is talking.)

3. -ed        creates the simple past  (He talked.)

4. -en        creates the past participle / used with have  (He has talked.)

Note:

The -en verb ending used with a form of to have as an auxiliary is generally written -ed, as in has talked.

Unlike the derivational affixes, these inflectional suffixes are consistently used with all verbs, even though their form may look different from verb to verb.

Because many verbs in English are irregular; as result, their –ed and/or –en  endings may not follow any obvious pattern.

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