Governmental examinatios’ answers made by Ali ibn Habibulloh al Ansaari fifth course

Dushanbe: old and new

Dushanbe (Tajik: Душанбе), is the capital and largest city of Tajikistan. Dushanbe means Monday in the Tajik language.[2][3] It was so named because it grew from a village that originally had a popular market on Mondays. Until 1929, the city was known in Russian as Dyushambe (Russian: Дюшамбе), and from 1929 to 1961 as Stalinabad (Tajik: Сталинобод, Persian: استالین‌آباد‎‎). As of 2014, Dushanbe has a population of 778,500.

The first written mention of the village Dushanbe found at the end of 1676. It was at the crossroads, where a large bazaar occurred on Mondays, hence the name Dushanbe-Bazar (Tajik: Душанбе Бозор, Dushanbe Bozor; Persian: دوشنبه بازار‎‎)[4] from Dushanbe, which means Monday in the Persian language.[2][3] In the village, there were more than 500 households and a population of about 8,000 people.

Dushanbe is a beautiful and very green city, almost entirely man-made in a foothill zone. While you are stepping into the city, you will be immediately imbued with the atmosphere of warmth, hospitality and friendliness, and truly oriental flavor.

The modern Dushanbe is a garden city with beautiful parks and artificial lakes. In Dushanbe, the Park of Sadriddin Ayni is located on the high and spacious terrace where the mountain river Varzob bursts into the city, foamingly leaving the steep ravines of Varzob canyon. There is S.Ayni’s mausoleum in the center of the Park decorated with colored marble.

The main street of the capital is Rudaki. It stretches for 12 km from the South to the North parallel to the Dushanbinka River. There is the Government House, the Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan, universities, theatres, museums of the capital, etc. in the Rudaki Street.

To the left of the monument there is the National library — the largest library in the Central Asia. The area of the library occupies 45 thousand square meters, the length of the building is 52 meters, and the width is 167 meters. 25 reading halls for 1.5 thousand people function in the library. 10 million of books can be stored in the library fund.

1. 
   The method of using pronouns some, any, not any.
   

‘some’, ‘any’ and ‘no’ are used with both ‘count’ and ‘non-count’ nouns. It is useful to remember which nouns are ‘count’ (countable) and ‘non-count’ (uncountable) first:Some and its compounds – somebody, someone, something, somewhere etc. are normally used in affirmative sentences: There is some wine in the cellar. We have some chocolate cake left from last night. There is someone at the door. Some and its compounds are also used in interrogatives (questions) which are used to make an offer or a request: Would you like some tea? Do you want something to eat? Can you ask someone to come and repair the TV?

Any Any and its compounds – anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere etc. are used in interrogative sentences: Has anyone seen my mobile? Do we have anything in the fridge?

Not any is used in negative sentences and any and its compounds can be used with words like without, never, rarely. I have never met anyone as rude as you. I did not have any time to speak to Marc. When any and its compounds are used in affirmative sentences there is a different meaning. We can go anywhere you like. = It doesn’t matter where we go. Anyone could have told you that. = I’m surprised you don’t know this.

2. 
   Ancient life
   

Organic products from ancient life are an integral part of the Earth’sresources, offering scientists a more accurate picture of ancient life-forms.One key to ancient life comes in the form of petrified matter. Petrifactionis a process that slowly turns the remains of a living object into stone. Inthis process, minerals seep into a mass of organic matter.After the organicmatter has been replaced, a mineral version of the living object is left.Petrifaction often occurs in trees that are found adjacent to rivers,floodable areas, and volcanoes,which provide the mud or ash that initiallycovers the organic matter. Some pieces of petrified wood retain the originalcellular structure of the wood and the grain can be easilyseen. Today, it is feasible to petrify wood in a simplelaboratory process.Fossils are another way that ancient life is preserved.Most fossils include an animal’s hard parts, such as teethand bones. One type of fossil, called a trace fossil, mayalso include eggs, tooth marks, contents of the guts, and fossil excrement.Some products from ancient life offer us more than scientific knowledge.One such product is coal, a solid fuel of plant origin. It develops overmillions of years, during which swamp vegetation is submerged in water,depleted of oxygen, and covered by layers and layers of sand and mud.These overlapping layers settle with the Earth’s movements and are compressed over time.

1. 
   
   

2. 
   The method of using pronouns much, many, little, few.
   

When do we use much and when many?

much: uncountable nouns (milk, marmalade, money, time etc.)

many: countable nouns (bottles of milk, jars of marmalade, dollars, minutes etc.)

Examples:

How much money have you got?

How many dollars have you got?

In informal English these questions are often answered with a lot of, lots of. There is no much difference between the two phrases.

2. When do we use a little and when a few?

a little: non countable nouns (milk, marmalade, money, time etc.)

a few: countable nouns (bottles of milk, jars of marmalade, dollars, minutes etc.)

Examples:

He has a little money left.

He has a few dollars left.

3. 
   Energy problems in modern world
   

The energy crisis is the concern that the world’s demands on the limited natural resources that are used to power industrial society are diminishing as the demand rises. These natural resources are in limited supply. While they do occur naturally, it can take hundreds of thousands of years to replenish the stores. Governments and concerned individuals are working to make the use of renewable resources a priority, and to lessen the irresponsible use of natural supplies through increased conservation. The energy crisis is a broad and complex topic. Most people don’t feel connected to its reality unless the price of gas at the pump goes up or there are lines at the gas station. The energy crisis is something that is ongoing and getting worse, despite many efforts. The reason for this is that there is not a broad understanding of the complex causes and solutions for the energy crisis that will allow for an effort to happen that will resolve it.

Possible Solutions of the Energy Crisis

Many of the possible solutions are already in place today, but they have not been widely adopted.

Move Towards Renewable Resources: The best possible solution is to reduce the world’s dependence on non-renewable resources and to improve overall conservation efforts. Much of the industrial age was created using fossil fuels, but there is also known technology that uses other types of renewable energies – such as steam, solar and wind. The major concern isn’t so much that we will run out of gas or oil, but that the use of coal is going to continue to pollute the atmosphere and destroy other natural resources in the process of mining the coal that it has to be replaced as an energy source. This isn’t easy as many of the leading industries use coal, not gas or oil, as their primary source of power for manufacturing.

Causes of the Energy Crisis

It would be easy to point a finger at one practice or industry and lay the blame for the entire energy crisis at their door, but that would be a very naive and unrealistic interpretation of the cause of the crisis.

1. Overconsumption: The energy crisis is a result of many different strains on our natural resources, not just one. There is a strain on fossil fuels such as oil, gas and coal due to overconsumption – which then in turn can put a strain on our water and oxygen resources by causing pollution.

2. Overpopulation: Another cause of the crisis has been the steady increase in the world’s population and its demands for fuel and products. No matter what type of food or products you choose to use – from fair trade and organic to those made from petroleum products in a sweatshop – not one of them is made or transported without a significant drain on our energy resources.

3. Poor Infrastructure: Aging infrastructure of power generating equipment is yet another reason for energy shortage. Most of the energy producing firms keep on using outdated equipment that restricts the production of energy. It is the responsibility of utilities to keep on upgrading the infrastructure and set a high standard of performance.

What is Being Done Today?

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There are many global initiatives that are working towards resolving the energy crisis. This has taken the form of increased regulation and restriction on carbon emissions, the promotion of greener manufacturing and construction projects, the funding of research into hybrid technologies and more sustainable technologies and more. Locally, more communities are seeing beyond the recycle bin and recognizing that how the community uses their local resources is important too. More community gardens, parks and farmer’s markets are springing up not only as a means of introducing more sustainable elements into people’s, but as an important part of educating the public about the importance of resources.

1. 
   The main methods of translating Passive voice
   

There are three ways of translating the Pasive voice into Russian/ 1. By the verb to be+ In the Present the verb to be is not used. 2. By verbs in. ся 3. By means of indefinite-personal constructions. The last way of translating is possible only if the doer of the action is not mentioned.

Houses are built of stone. Дома сторится из камня. The house was built in 1932. –Дом был построен в 1932

2. 
   Tajik National Parks and Reserves
   

You’ve hiked in some of the most popular—and the most beautiful—places in the world. Nepal, New Zealand, and Peru. Now you’re ready for a change of pace. At least in some respects. Beautiful locations are still in, but you’re looking for something off the beaten path. A place that isn’t well trodden, or even well mapped, is ideal. They’re getting harder and harder to find, though. Unless you head to Central Asia.

Tajikistan, to be exact. The landlocked country is home to the Pamir Mountains, the third-highest mountain range in the world. They sit at the Pamir Knot, a junction where the mountains of Eurasia, including the Himalayas, meet. Once there, you find Tajik National Park, a huge nature reserve that encompasses nearly 20 percent of the country. It’s filled with glacial peaks, piercingly blue lakes, and the highway with the second-highest altitude in the world. And there’s no one here. The basic documents regulating PA management in the country are the Acts “On Nature Conservation” (1993) and “On Protected Natural Areas”. The last includes the following list of PA categories: zapovedniks (including biosphere reserves) (Category I according to the IUCN); national parks (II); zakazniks (forest, botanic, zoological, complex) (IV, VI); unique nature objects (nature monuments) (III).

In addition to the laws mentioned above, there are the following important legal acts: the Forest Code (1993), the Water Code (1993), the Land Code (1996), Acts “On the Land Reform” (1992), “On Fauna Conservation and Use” (1994), “On Mining Resources” (1994), “On Dekhan Enterprises (Farms) ”(1992), “On Atmospheric Air Protection” (1996), the Statements “On Hunting and Hunting Industry in Tajikistan” (1997) and “On Inspection”. Unique nature monuments could have either national or regional significance; these can be designated by authorities of various levels depending on their significance.

Protected Areas in Tajikistan

According to the World Database on Protected Areas, in Tajikistan there are 3 National Parks, 5 State Nature Reserves, and 23 Nature Refuges (Zakaznik).

National Parks

Pamirsky Shirkent Verkjhniy Gissar

State Nature Reserves

Dashtidzumsky Penjikent Piyanj Ramit Tigrovaya Balka Nature Refuges (Zakaznik)

Aktashsky Almasinskiy Bakhrimkul Chil'dukhtaronsky Dashtimaidonsky Ishkashim

Iskanderkul'sky Kanarousskiy Karatausky Komarou Kusavlisaisky Matchi Muzkulsky Nurekskiy

Pamirsky Pshart Saivatinsky Sanglyarsky Sarykhosorsky Uil Dukhtoronskiy Verkhniy Muzhkul

Zeravshansky (Sarezmsky) Zorkylsky

1. 
   Infinitive and infinitive constructions in Tajik and English Languages
   

The infinitive is a verbal form (a non-finite verb form) which consists of the base form of the verb with the particle "to": to do; to go; to play; to take; to break; to find.

The English infinitive and the Russian non-finite verb form have similar features. At the same time, the infinitive in English has a number of peculiarities which make using the infinitive difficult for language learners.

Properties and functions of the infinitive

The infinitive has some properties of the verb. The infinitive names an action (to drive a car) or state (to be sick), but cannot show person, number, or mood. The infinitive has active and passive forms (to take; to be taken) and can express voice and time, though in a rather limited way.

The infinitive has the following active and passive forms: simple (to write), continuous (to be writing), perfect (to have written), perfect continuous (to have been writing), simple passive (to be written), perfect passive (to have been written). The examples below illustrate the use of the infinitive forms in sentences.

2. 
   Social Inequality.
   

Nelson Mandela devoted his life to fighting prejudice in South Africa.Mandela traveled his state, organizing a fight against discriminatory lawsand racial bias. He encouraged civil disobedience as a tool against theoppression of Blacks. As deputy president of the African NationalCongress, Mandela encouraged his fellow citizens to challenge theprevailing paradigm of power. Mandela believed that prejudice burdenednot only the oppressed, but also the oppressors.The government countered Mandela’s activities with a criminalconviction. Still, Mandela’s de facto leadership gained him respect andauthority among his fellow citizens. Mandela’s courageand popularity worried the ruling class, who did not wantto share power. What’s more, they refused to amend thestate’s laws. So when Mandela returned from an overseastrip to gain support for his cause in 1962, he was arrested,jailed, and sentenced to life in prison for various crimes.This only fueled Mandela’s notions about inequalityand justice. He took his demands to jail, where hedemanded the same dress and safety gear for Black prisoners as for Whiteprisoners. After 28 years in prison, Mandela was released, returningimmediately to public life. In 1994, he was elected the president of SouthAfrica.

1. 
   The participle and participle constructions
   

Formation and use of English participles, main constructions with participles and various questions related to participles are described in this material.

Main points

English verbs have two participles: the present participle (typing, writing) and the past participle (typed, written). Participles have some qualities of verbs and are used in the formation of the continuous, perfect and perfect continuous tenses (he is typing; he has written a letter). Participles have some qualities of adjectives and are used as attributes in a sentence (a smiling girl; surprised faces). Participles are also used in the function of adverbial modifiers (he opened the door, smiling; surprised, he didn't know what to say). A participle construction, that is, a participle together with the words closely connected with it, can function as an attribute (the girl sitting at the table) or as an adverbial modifier (standing by the window, she watched the birds). Participle constructions (participial constructions) are usually called "participial phrases" or "participial clauses" in English grammar materials. English participles are translated into Russian with the help of verbs, adjectives, participles, adverbial participles. Russian adverbial participle has no corresponding form in English.

In Modern English we find the following predicate constructions with the participle: 1. The Objective Participal Construction; 2. The Subjunctive Participal Construction; 3. The Nominative Absolute Participal Construction. 4. The Prepositional Absolute Participal Construction;

2. 
   Tajikistan national meals
   

Plov (Tajik: palav, Uzbek: palov), also called throughout central Asia as osh, is the national dish in Tajikistan, as in other countries in the region. Green tea is the national drink. Traditional Tajik meals start with a spread of dried fruit, nuts, halva, and other sweets arrayed on the table in small dishes, and then progress to soup and meat, before finishing with plov. As with most countries in the region, meals are served on a dastarkhan, a low table where food is served at the feet of diners. Palav or osh, generically known as plov, is a rice dish made with shredded yellow turnip or carrot and pieces of meat, all fried together in vegetable oil or mutton fat (traditionally a sheep's tail) in a special kazan (a wok-shaped cauldron with a narrow bottom) over an open flame. The meat is cubed, the carrots are chopped finely into long strips, and the rice is colored yellow or orange by the frying carrots and the oil together, after which the meat is added, and finally a carefully measured amount of rice and water. Usually, whole bulbs of garlic are added and served atop the plate of plov. Other common ingredients include onions, chickpeas, raisins, quinces, apricots, and other fruits. The dish is eaten communally from a single large plate placed at the center of the table; traditionally, plov is eaten with bare hands, and this practice is still often used in rural areas.

Another traditional dish that is still eaten with hands from a communal plate is qurutob, whose name describes the preparation method: qurut (sometimes called Kurt, dried balls of salty cheese) is dissolved in water (Tajik: ob) and the liquid is poured over strips of а thin flaky flatbread (patyr or fatir, or more accurately fatir ravghani, i.e., fatir made with butter or lard for flakiness). Before serving, the dish is topped with onions fried in oil until golden and other fried vegetables. No meat is added.

Tea accompanies every meal and is frequently offered between meals as a gesture of hospitality to guests and visitors. It is served hot in a china pot with a lid and is drunk with or without sugar or honey, from small saucer-like cups without handles (piala). Because of the universal popularity of tea-drinking, the chaikhana or teahouse is the most common gathering place in Tajikistan, replacing the Western-style coffee house.

Meals are usually served with non, a flatbread found throughout Central Asia (also universally called lepyoshka in Russian). If a Tajik has food but not non, he will say he is out of food. If non is dropped on the ground, people will put it up on a high ledge for beggars or birds. Legend holds that one is not supposed to put non upside down because this will bring bad luck. The same holds true if anything is put on top of the non, unless it is another piece of non. Many Tajik foods are eaten in other countries of the region as well. One of these is the good old shashlik (shish-ka-bob without vegetables, barbeque) which can be found on any street corner in central Asia. Shashlik is simply chunks of meat (any type) put on a long skewer and roasted over a charcoal or wood fire; the marinade, however, is crucial to the taste and varies widely. Traditional Tajik soups include mainly meat and vegetable soups (such as shurbo and piti) and meat soups with noodles (such as lagmon and ugro). Other dishes shared regionally, either as fast food or as an appetizer, include manti (steamed meat dumplings), samsa (a triangular pasty with a meat and onion stuffing, baked in a tandir oven), and belyash, deep-fried cakes made of yeast dough and filled with minced meat, similar to piroshki). Dairy dishes, usually served as part of the spread of appetizers in a Tajik meal and scooped with pieces of flatbread, include chaka (a sour milk preparation), thick yoghurt, and kaymak (high-fat clotted cream). Qurut balls may be served as a snack or an accompaniment to cold beverages. Although not a traditional Tajik drink, kefir, a drinking yogurt, is often served with breakfast. In the summer, Tajikistan is abundant in fruit: its grapes and melons were famous throughout the former Soviet Union. The bazaars are overflowing with fresh, natural pomegranates, apricots, plums, peaches, apples, pears, figs, persimmons, quinces, berries and many others.

1. 
   Gerund and its grammatical and lexical functions.
   

The gerund looks exactly the same as a present participle, but it is useful to understand the difference between the two. The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb). Some uses of the gerund are covered on this page. A separate page deals with verbs that are followed by the gerund.

THE GERUND AS THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE EXAMPLES Eating people is wrong. Hunting tigers is dangerous. Flying makes me nervous. Brushing your teeth is important. Smoking causes lung cancer.

THE GERUND AS THE COMPLEMENT OF THE VERB 'TO BE' One of his duties is attending meetings. The hardest thing about learning English is understanding the gerund. One of life's pleasures is having breakfast in bed.

THE GERUND AFTER PREPOSITIONS The gerund must be used when a verb comes after a preposition. This is also true of certain expressions ending in a preposition, for example the expressions in spite of & there's no point in. Can you sneeze without opening your mouth?

She is good at painting. She avoided him by walking on the opposite side of the road. We arrived in Madrid after driving all night. My father decided against postponing his trip to Hungary.

2. 
   Navruz-International spring holiday
   

"Nowruz transcends national borders, religious divides and other differences to unite communities with bonds of goodwill. Such common purpose can help humanity rise to this moment in history." Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon

International Nowruz Day was proclaimed by the United Nations General Assembly, in its resolution A/RES/64/253 of 2010, at the initiative of several countries that share this holiday (Afghanistan, Albania, Azerbaijan, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, India, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkey and Turkmenistan. Inscribed in 2009 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity as a cultural tradition observed by numerous peoples, Nowruz is an ancestral festivity marking the first day of spring and the renewal of nature. It promotes values of peace and solidarity between generations and within families as well as reconciliation and neighbourliness, thus contributing to cultural diversity and friendship among peoples and different communities.International Day of Nowruz The United Nations’ (UN) International Day of Nowruz celebrates the start of the Persian spring festival March 21 ever year. It occurs on or around the time of the March equinox.