THE KOKAND KHANATE 63
Calligraphers gained great renown in the Khanate of Kokand, as they copied
and beautifully ornamented the works of eminent poets and historians, as well as
mystical literature. Some of the calligraphers were themselves poets who could
beautifully decorate their own verse. The names of many of these calligraphers
are known to every educated person in Ferghana even today, and their works are
still treasured. The first photograph appeared in the Kokand Khanate in 1872. In
that year the newspaper
Turkestan Vedomosti announced that “here in the center of
Muslim Asia,
in the Kokand Khanate, there exist two photographers.”
161
On Taxes and Discontent
The main tax in Kokand and the other khanates was levied on the product of the
land (
haraj)
. From land used for rice, wheat, sorghum, and other cereal crops,
the government collected a fifth of the harvest, and from land used for vineyards,
vegetables, and cotton the size of the
haraj was determined by the specific crop.
In addition, cash payments in the form of
tanabana were demanded for garden
plots
devoted to melons, watermelons, cucumbers, clover, onions,
and carrots,
vineyards or orchards.
162
The
haraj supported the army and local administration, and enabled local
beks
to respond to calls from Kokand for troops in wartime. A tax-collector (
sarkor) and
his assistants down to the level of
aksakals managed the actual collection.
163
The tax on cattle, manufactures, and property in general was known as the
zakat.
As was typical in Muslim countries, the
zakat was set at one fortieth of the cost
of sale, although in practice it was often more. The growth of urban enterprises
and the increased levies at the borders increased the khan’s revenues over time.
In addition, there were a lot of special fees, duties, and levies on everything from
dairy cows to fodder for horses.
164
And, finally, the population was burdened with
many other obligations and demands that left the labor force in a very precarious
condition. Independent of the amount of taxes they had paid, residents had to sup-
ply horses, wagons, and manpower for the renovation or construction of fortresses,
irrigation canals, the cleaning of stables, and so forth. Those not paying in labor
were obliged to pay in cash.
A review of the socio-economic and political conditions in the khanate over its
entire existence suggests that the preconditions for popular rebellions against the
khans, feudal lords, and their surrogates were always present, and that such upris-
ings in the name of freedom nearly always focused on economic and tax issues.
Such uprisings occurred in the suburbs of major cities and across the central regions
of the khanate, and were deftly manipulated by feudal lords who drew the lower
classes into their own political conflicts. Many such uprisings looked backwards,
but some looked forward as well.
The backward-looking rebellions that merit mention
include the revolt by
Hodja Bek in 1799, the Chust mutiny in 1800, and the uprising of the Kipchaks
in 1843. Others that appear to belong to this group but cannot firmly be ascribed
64 DUBOVITSKII,
BABABEKOV
to it because of the paucity of archival materials are, the Andijan uprising at the
time of Abdu-Raim Bey, the Kabul revolt, the Karategin rebellions in Karategin
and Issyk Kul, the Osh revolt of 1849, the 1850 and 1854 revolts in Tashkent,
the 1957 rebellion of Rustam Khan and Mirza Munavvar, and the 1858 insur-
rection in Khujand.
More forward-looking were the revolt of Chadak
hodjas in 1709, the Kipchaks
uprising in 1748–49, the Tashkent revolt of 1808, a rebellion under the leadership
of Tentak-Ture in 1821, Kalandar’s revolt in 1841, the Kokand national uprising
of 1842, the Tashkent national uprising in 1847, the Kipchaks’ movement in 1853,
the uprising in Ura-Tyube in 1858, a Kazakh rebellion in 1858, the Kyrgyz uprising
in the 1860s, the Sokh revolt of 1871, and the Pulat Khan rebellion of 1873–76.
The goal of many of these, including the Kazakh and Kyrgyz revolts, was national
liberation. Similar uprisings at various times were initiated by Uzbeks and Tajiks.
Such Uzbek uprisings included the Andijan revolt of 1721, the Kalandar revolt
in 1841, the Kokand popular uprising of 1841, the national uprisings in Tashkent
in 1847 and 1850, the uprising of Rustam Khan and Mirza Munavvar. Nearly all
these rebellions broke out spontaneously and without preparation. Whatever the
objects of the rebels’ wrath, the driving force of their uprisings were the poorer
segments of the population.
The uprisings of 1858–60 on the territory of southern Kazakhstan were directed
against the tax policies and general despotism of the Kokand khans, with the
Kazakhs seeking Russian protection or citizenship. To the east, Kyrgyz uprisings
included the revolt of the Sary-bagysh, Taylak, and Issyk Kul Kyrgyz, and also
the Osh rebellion, the revolt of Alim bek, and the Sokh uprising. Kyrgyz revolts
were also directed against the tax policies of the Kokand khan, but they were usu-
ally accompanied by a parallel struggle with the Kipchaks over key positions in
the khanate’s government locally. It is notable that few, if any, rebellions of the
Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, or Kipchaks had as their primary aim to secede from the Kokand
state and establish an independent government.
Tajik uprisings included the Chust revolt and uprisings in Karategin, Ura-Tyube,
and Khujand. Unlike the Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, the Tajiks generally appealed to
independence, while also opposing the khanate’s tax system. Among the Kipchak re-
bellions can be included: the uprisings of 1748–49, 1843, 1853, 1854, and 1857–58.
The Kipchaks largely fought for the survival of their people, and hence tended to
act together, regardless of position and class. The Uzbeks, Kipchaks, Tajiks, and
Kyrgyz participated together in a number of revolts, specifically the Kokand national
uprising of 1842 and the most ambitious movement of 1873–76, which involved
almost the entire population of the Kokand Khanate. Such revolts prepared the
soil for the larger acts of rebellion that were to occur later and, indirectly, for the
numerous acts of sedition that were committed during Soviet times.
Thus, the liquidation of the Kokand Khanate and its inclusion into the territory
of the Russian Empire stopped the many conflicts and wars, including those among
the elites, that had long inflicted suffering on the local population.