kalandars
(hermits) in order to engage them in socially useful work. To assure
the accuracy and correctness of prayers in the mosques, he required that religious
leaders take examinations, and he punished those who deviated from the true faith.
This was too much for the reactionary clergy. In 1810 they took advantage of the
population’s discontent with Alim Khan’s frequent military operations and current
presence in Tashkent to disseminate the false rumor that he had been killed. His
brother Umar ascended to the throne, but Alim Khan soon learned of the treason
and rushed back to Kokand by the shortest route. However, the conspirators lay in
ambush and one of them, one Kambar Mirza from Andijan, shot Alim Khan.
During the reign of Umar Khan that followed, Kokand continued to expand its
territory. Umar also attempted to establish diplomatic ties with Russia, but on the
return trip from St. Petersburg one of the ambassadors died of disease, a second
member of the embassy was killed by a Russian soldier, and a third was exiled to
the settlement of Petropavlovsk.
Literature and the arts flourished at the time of Umar, but he also restored
the clergy’s status and benefits and concentrated nearly all power in their hands.
Under the guise of sharia law, they suppressed every manifestation of discontent.
Nonetheless, Umar’s lavish reconstruction of the Friday Mosque in Kokand earned
him the title of amir-ul-muslimin (captain of the faithful). And indeed, many local
historians described Umar Khan as “pious,” though he was brutal in his wars of
conquest. Dishod, a famous poetess of the nineteenth century, described his actions
in Ura-Tyube in 1817 in her Tarih-i-muhajiron (History of Settlers):
All the prisoners were herded into the square of Chor-su. People whispered that
on that day 13,400 people had been taken prisoner. The amir of Ferghana himself,
Amir Umar Khan, despite being a scholar and great poet, had mercy neither on
the scholars nor poets of this oppressed people.
9
In the fall of 1822 Umar Khan fell ill, and he died a year later. On the day of his
death his sixteen-year-old son, Muhammad Ali (Madali), was proclaimed khan. V.P.
34 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
Nalivkin describes him as “a willful boy, spoiled, capricious, evil, and morally and
physically depraved thanks to the flatteries of courters, wine, women, and the bad
examples that abounded in his court.”
10
This did not, however, prevent his using the
army to expand the Kokand Khanate to include the southern foothills of the Alai
range inhabited by Tajiks, as well as Karategin, Darwaz, Shugnan, Rushan, and
Vakhan in the Pamirs. Between 1826 and 1831 he organized expeditions against
Kashgar, as a result of which the Chinese were forced to allow Muhammad Ali
Khan to collect duty on that territory. For this coup, Muhammad Ali Khan was
honored with the religious title of “Defender of the Faith” or Ghazi. But such re-
joicing proved premature, for during the reign of Muhammad Ali Khan, relations
between Kokand and Bukhara steadily worsened. As a result of repeated wars
between the khanates, the Emir of Bukhara Nasrullah Khan succeeded in seizing
Khujand and adding it to his own realm. Worse, Muhammad Ali Khan himself had
to acknowledge himself a vassal of the emir of Bukhara.
Realizing his precarious political position, Muhammad Ali Khan tried in 1842
to forge an alliance with Russia. For this purpose he sent an ambassador to St.
Petersburg with a letter stating that “the genuine friendship between the high court
of Russia and the kingdom of Kokand was reflected in the steady exchange of
ambassadors which, for reasons entirely unknown, ceased completely. We do not
know if this unpleasant development was caused by officials of our government or
of your Imperial Majesty. But in order to rekindle the old friendship, I am sending
to you a true well-wisher of noble origin—the deserving Naqib-Gale-Ashraf.”
11
Tsar Nicholas I addressed his letter of response to “the Kokand landowner Seyid
Muhammad Ali Khan Bahadur.” He indicated that We were very pleased to hear
. . . of your wish to maintain friendly relations with the powerful Russian State,
and we, for our part, express absolute readiness to meet your good intentions. . . .
Your subjects that come to Russia are being protected and receive our patronage.
We want Russian citizens to find equal security and justice in your land. . . . Only
then can the foundations of reciprocal relations between us become solid.”
12
The Kokand government also requested permission for its subjects to travel to
Mecca via Russia, help for Kokand and Tashkent traders traveling to Siberia, and
medals and diplomas for various Kokand luminaries and mullahs.
13
The Russian
side promised to examine these requests and to meet them if possible.
All this ended without the slightest effect when the ambassador from Kokand
reached Semipalatinsk and discovered that internecine fighting had again broken out
in his land.
14
Moreover, relations between Kokand and Bukhara soon degenerated
into war, and eventually Muhammad Ali Khan’s was forced to abdicate in favor of
his younger brother, Sultan Mahmud. In April 1842, the Emir of Bukhara Nasrul-
lah, conquered Kokand and executed Sultan Mahmud Khan, his elder brother and
former khan Muhammad Ali, and their mother Nadira, a famous poet.
A Russian participant of these events, Vasilii Pshenichnikov, later wrote that
“After the capture of Kokand, the city and its surrounding villages were left to be
plundered by the Bukharan cavalry, and the khan’s palace was given to the people
THE KOKAND KHANATE 35
of Sarbaz, who immediately seized sixteen chests of gowns and thirty of the khan’s
wives. The emir of Bukhara took the treasury. Meanwhile, the khan of Kokand
escaped to Margilan, but was captured and brought in a cart to the capital, where
he was slaughtered along with his people.”
15
In June 1842, Sher Ali was proclaimed khan, and shortly thereafter arrived in Ko-
kand with his 3,000–4,000-man army. Learning of their approach, Ibrahim-Dadhoh,
the leader whom the khan of Bukhara had installed, escaped to Khujand. The people
of Kokand, knowing that Nasrullah would mount another campaign against them, set
about fortifying the city and erecting a new city wall. As soon as he heard about this,
the emir of Bukhara set out with a large army to Kokand, reaching the city on July
29. Nasrullah set up headquarters in the village of Muy-Muborak, where he stayed
for more than two months. Encircling Kokand on four sides, he thought the people
would soon be starved into surrendering.
16
Meanwhile, one of his prominent com-
manders, Musulmankul, asked the emir’s permission to enter Kokand to persuade the
inhabitants to surrender. After Nasrullah gave his assent, Musulmankul entered the
city and began at once to call on the people to come together and defend themselves,
explaining that the Bukharan forces were so weak that Emir Nasrullah would soon
have to lift the siege and return to Bukhara. Surviving archival sources confirm that
the armed Kokandis immediately rallied around their khan and mounted a heroic
defenses, repelling all attacks by the Bukharan forces. Meanwhile, an army from
the Emirate of Khiva invaded Bukhara on September 26. Upon receiving this news,
Nasrullah left Kokand for Bukhara on October 9.
17
Thus, even though the Kokandis failed to defeat the emir of Bukhara’s forces,
they still kept themselves free from his potential yoke. In spite of this achieve-
ment, Sherali’s rule proved extremely onerous for the population, which reacted
to his extortions with uprisings across the entire khanate. One such uprising broke
out in Osh in 1845. Meanwhile, Musulmankul had decided to take advantage of
the political situation to get rid of Sherali Khan. To do so, Musulmankul planned
to move the entire Kokand army to Osh to quell the uprising. Not knowing of the
plot, Murad, son of Ali Khan, who had been dethroned in 1841, decided to take
advantage of Musulmankul’s absence from Kokand and seized the throne himself.
Proclaiming himself monarch, he also announced he would be a vassal of the emir
of Bukhara. The now-dethroned Sherali Khan was killed the next night. But the
people of Kokand hated the khan of Bukhara and therefore opposed Murad Khan
as well. Musulmankul arrived in Namangan, gave his twelve-year-old daughter
in marriage to the young Khudayar, Sherali Khan’s son. Arriving in Kokand, he
executed Khan Murad and all those who supported him.
To seize the throne for himself, Musulmankul then manipulated the aspirations
of several other potential claimants. He knew that one of them, the nomadic leader
Sarymsak, dreamed of becoming khan, and therefore invited him from Tashkent
to Kokand to be crowned. But Musulmankul then gave orders for Sarymsak to
be killed, which was done. After this, Musulmankul arranged for the under-aged
Khudayar to be proclaimed khan, and for himself to be his regent.
36 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
This began a period in which the Kipchak party dominated Kokand. Taking advan-
tage of the khan’s youth, Musulmankul managed the khanate with near-total authority.
Yet, according to the Russian orientalist and diplomat, N.F. Petrovskii, Musulmankul’s
reign “was not bad for the people, because the strict and harsh Musulmankul was in
his own way a fair ruler and a good head of the khanate.”
18
The author of the contemporary study “Seyid Mohammad Khudayar Khan from
Kokand” has observed that Musulmankul always acted in the name of either the
khan or someone else within the khan’s immediate circle.
19
He treated Khudayar
Khan the way Alexander Menshikov treated Peter II, keeping the young khan locked
up, giving him no money, and forbidding him from issuing orders independently.
The Kipchaks reigned supreme in these years, under the guidance of Musulmankul.
Opposition to them arose among other segments of the population, however, and
in 1853 a massive wave of violence exploded against Kipchaks. Before it subsided
20,000 of them had been killed, among them Musulmankul.
With these events Khudayar Khan began his reign, which lasted from 1853
to 1858. He continued the dismal policies of his predecessors by oppressing the
populace and totally disregarding its needs. Out of the northern provinces of the
khanate he formed a special region ruled by a governor-general. Khudayar Khan
entrusted its management to Mirza Akhmad, who proceeded to arouse the nomads’
indignation with his outrageous behavior. As a result, the entire northern part of
the khanate rebelled in 1858.
Meanwhile, the khan, having had no news from Mirza Akhmad and assum-
ing he was in danger, dispatched his older brother, Mallya Bek, to Tashkent and
granted his request for control over all the forces in the northern province. Mallya
Bek saw an opportunity in this and immediately pardoned all those involved in
the uprising; he also decreased their taxes. With the support of Tashkent and the
entire northern part of the khanate, Mallya assembled an army, routed his brother
at Samanchi, occupied Kokand, and named himself khan. Soon coins were being
minted with the name Mallya Khan.
From this time forward the role of the Kipchaks in the political life of the khanate
steadily increased. All the land taken away from them by Khudayar Khan was returned
to its former owners. Such actions increased Mallya Khan’s credibility among large
parts of the population. Less successful were his efforts to open diplomatic relations
with China and to place the Karategin region under the jurisdiction of Kokand.
During Mallya Khan’s reign the Russian Empire intensified its military opera-
tions against the Khanate of Kokand, seizing Tokmak, Pishpek (later Frunze, now
Bishkek) and a number of other fortresses in their vicinities. Mallya Khan made
several attempts to retrieve the lost settlements, but without success. Resentment
against him increased and was fanned by unbearable taxes and duties, as well as
the government’s harsh retaliations against those who failed to pay. Finally, in
March 1862 Mallya Khan was assassinated and his nephew, the seventeen-year-old
Shakhmurad, was declared khan.
The new khan immediately executed everyone who had been close to his
THE KOKAND KHANATE 37
uncle. Kanaat, the ruler of Tashkent, feared for his life. Reinforcing the defenses
of Tashkent, he then invited Khudayar to join him, promising to return the former
khan to his throne. Khudayar arrived in Tashkent in March. Upon hearing this,
Shakhmurad besieged Tashkent with a 14,000-man army. However, Khudayar
Khan’s supporters managed to kidnap Shakhmurad. At the same time the emir of
Bukhara, Muzaffar, marched on Kokand. What was left of Shakhmurad’s forces
lifted the siege of Tashkent and retreated to the Alatau Mountains. As a result,
Khudayar Khan reclaimed the throne of Kokand.
At that time there were three descendants of former Kokand khans living in
Kokand: Sadykbek, Hodjibek, and Shakhrukh. These were all young (around twenty
years of age), and all of them unexpectedly declared their intention of claiming their
rightful throne. The Kokand elite were divided, with some supporting the young
claimants and others, who remained loyal to Alimkul, moving to crush their forces.
Alimkul himself, watching the machinations of the ambitious youths, resolved to
eliminate them. He called each of the young claimants, promising each in turn that
he would have him named as khan. When the young men, believing this, arrived in
Osh, Alimkul gave orders for all of them to be killed. All three unlucky hopefuls
were buried on the cemetery at Osh, where their graves can still be found on the
northern slope of the Solomon’s Mountain (Takht-Suleiman).
After that, on July 9, 1863, Alimkul named as khan the son of Mallya Khan, Sultan
Murad, and immediately launched an attack on Khudayar Khan’s forces. At the same
time the Emir of Bukhara Muzaffar had to return to his capital because a rebellion had
broken out in Shakhrisabz. Learning of this, the Kipchaks, together with some Kyrgyz
tribes, assembled their troops and simultaneously besieged Kokand and Tashkent.
20
The next phase of this drama was recounted by a Russian corps commander stationed
in Orenburg. According to Adjutant General Bezak, “the emir reconciled with the
Kipchaks and agreed to remove Khudayar Khan and to elect the son of the deceased
Mallya instead of Sultan Murad, who was a mere boy of thirteen–fourteen years.”
21
Mullah Alimkul would be regent with the power to appoint all officials.
As regent, Alimkul’s goal was to consolidate the Kipchaks’ control of the khan-
ate. This was to be accomplished by “concentrating around Kokand those Kyrgyz
tribes that had been most helpful to the Kipchaks during their uprising against
Khudayar Khan.”
22
It also meant strengthening the Kokand government by recruit-
ing more troops, amassing weapons, and reinforcing Kokand’s defenses. Influential
people were sent to rule Tashkent and other distant cities.
23
All this was costly and
burdened the populace with heavy taxes. The people of Kokand had little sympathy
for the new khan. Fearing a sudden attack, Alimkul destroyed the old palace in the
center of Kokand and began to build a new one in the suburbs.
24
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