THE KOKAND KHANATE 39
members of the clergy, military officers, court officials and administrators carried
honorific titles under the Khanate of Kokand.
The right to no fewer than six titles belonged exclusively to men who could
claim to be descended either from Mohammed or from the first four caliphs.
30
These
officials received an annual salary ranging from 120 to 1,200 tanga
, as well as be-
tween 50 to 70 tubs of grain.
31
Eleven more offices, including all those pertaining
to religion, went exclusively to people who had been educated in Muslim schools
and madrassas. However, a scholarly record did not suffice to obtain the rank of
shaykh-ul-islam
; for this it was necessary also to be descended from someone who
had made the pilgrimage to Mecca (
hajj). Clergy were supported by foundations
(
waqfs) or taxes, and they received gifts or bonuses from the khan in the form of
money, grain, or rich robes. Those who administered the religious duties of Mus-
lims and oversaw the sharia, called
mukhtasibs, had the additional requirement of
demonstrating certain positive moral traits.
32
The khan’s fiscal affairs were managed by a senior official called
mirza-i-daftar;
he kept special accounts of the treasury. Another official
was the custodian of
payments in kind to the khan. This officer provisioned the palace and the khan’s
numerous bodyguards and servants. A treasurer received all payments in cash, and
also managed the khan’s jewels.
33
The most influential people of the dominant party usually cornered the best posi-
tions in the khanate. At the peak of the system was the khan’s permanent council, to
which the occupants of all the main posts were appointed ex officio, as well as others
named by the khan and his closest advisers. The clergy also played a significant
role in urban life, and exercised judicial power even in civil issues. All litigation in
Kokand was based on the sharia and adat
, as were the punishments administered.
For the theft of more than ten tenga a person would have one hand chopped off;
for murder the offender’s head would be cut off; apostates and women guilty of
adultery would be stoned to death.
34
In 1814 F. Nazarov watched as a sword was
used to chop off the right hand of an offender for the theft of thirty sheep. He also
witnessed the killing of a seventeen-year-old girl in Kokand, whose sole crime was
that she had refused to marry anyone but her beloved.
The highest judicial authority was the
qazi or judge, who served as the clergy’s
weapon in sentencing often-innocent people to death. Citizens were allowed to
appeal the
qazi’s sentence, but rarely dared to do so. An unwary applicant appeal-
ing the decisions of the
qazi to the khan would turn all the judicial class against
himself. If he could not prove the
qazi’s alleged abuse, he was accused of defaming
the
holy law, for which he could pay with his life.
35
Slavery and the slave trade existed in the Khanate of Kokand, and their vestiges
endured to the end of the khanate. In the city of Kokand, a young male slave was
worth 30 tillya
, and a young slave-girl, 40 tillya.
36
Slaves were treated as objects.
For example, on March 1, 1871, the khan’s brother, Sultan Murad, organized a
horse race in honor of Khudayar Khan. The first prize consisted of one male slave
(
gulyam) and one young female slave (
churi), plus a fabric yurt, an Arabian carpet,
40 DUBOVITSKII,
BABABEKOV
two Kipchak carpets, three blankets, nine porcelain plates, nine cups, two horses
with a golden harness and a horse cloth sewed with silver, and other items.
37
Sultan
Murad owned twenty slaves who performed heavy work in his fields and gardens,
repaired equipment, and served as gatekeepers and stablemen.
38
Acknowledging all
this, there were far fewer slaves in Kokand than in either Bukhara or Khiva—and
they received better treatment in Kokand. Most slaves were former soldiers who
had been taken captive during raids on neighboring states.
The top military rank in the Khanate of Kokand was the
mingbashi (commander
of thousand horsemen), which was usually combined with the post of vizier or prime
minister. During the reigns of Sherali Khan and Khudayar Khan, the
mingbashi also
served as commander-in-chief in times of hostility. Beneath him were
ponsadbashis
(leaders of five hundred men) and
yuzbashis (leaders of one hundred men). Upon
admission to the service each soldier received a horse and a harness, and before
each campaign he received a fixed sum according to his rank. Otherwise, soldiers
were paid in cash and provisions.
39
There were no class or ethnic distinctions in the designation of military ranks,
although in ranks 1 to 7 Uzbeks predominated.
40
The problems that steadily accu-
mulated were less in the officer corps than in the rank and file. By 1860, Kokand
had nothing resembling a regular army. In order to maintain tranquility in the khan-
ate, mercenaries had to be hired to man the fortress garrisons. During wartime, all
males able to bear arms were recruited into the service.
Each fall the government announced the recruitment of people to serve in the
garrisons. The lower ranks received monthly payments of one tillya and a year’s
supply of two bags of flour and seven to ten sacks of barley for their horse. In ad-
dition, in the spring they received four summer garments, boots, a turban, sash,
and a skullcap; and for the winter a warm garment, a sheepskin coat, boots, a warm
hat and a horse. Their weapons included a saber, lance, and rifle, all generally of
poor quality.
When a military campaign was planned, the khan sent out a decree for troops
to assemble at a given place and in certain numbers. The
mingbashi carried out
these orders and became the corps commanders. Following this, the khan himself
took the field with his bodyguards, gathering fortress garrisons on his way and
leaving behind only a minimum number of soldiers. Citizen-soldiers also joined
the khan.
In addition
to large copper cannons, the army
had small cast-iron cannons,
including short ones that were like falconets, and longer ones similar to Russian
fortress guns. They were transported on special carts with large wheels (
Kokand
arba
). Traders were warned in advance and were ready with food whenever the army
pitched camp. Fortress garrisons were paid in advance, but line troops received no
money for food, nor did the citizen-soldiers. Worse, merchants frequently failed to
arrive in time, leaving the army without essentials. Indeed, there were cases when
campaigns had to be interrupted owing to a lack of food supplies.
It is difficult to determine the number of Kokand’s forces. Some reports in the
THE KOKAND KHANATE 41
1850s claim that the khan could gather up and put in the field some 40,000 men
in twenty days. However, internecine wars undermined the khanate’s forces. For
example, in spite of an all-out effort in 1860 the khan could assemble only some
25,000 men.
41
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