Anglo-Russian Rivalry in Central Asia
Given the existence of a broader problem of Anglo-Russian rivalry in Central Asia
in the nineteenth century, it is inevitable that the conquest of Kokand would be inter-
preted in some quarters as but one element among many in that larger competition.
And indeed, some Russian academic historians have blamed the English for all sins
committed during Russia’s conquest of the region, as a means of justifying Russia’s
aggressive policy in Central Asia. These scholars frightened their readers with the
fear that England could have conquered Central Asia and imposed worse suffering
on it, and that the local populations should consider themselves fortunate to have
“joined” with the great Russia; in short, to have chosen the lesser of two evils.
The most amazing thing was that the vast majority of Russian generals and
officers wrote in their reports and memoirs that they had “conquered” the Central
Asian states, an assertion that has been repeated by Russian historians. But Asian
historians, including Uzbeks, have objected, claiming that “No, Russia did not
‘conquer’ us, it ‘annexed’ us!” History shows that invaders who enslaved others
to enrich their own treasuries are neither good nor kind; indeed, otherwise there is
no logic or sense in their military campaigns.
For example, as A. Aminov and A. Babakhodzhaev wrote: “English-Russian
conflict in Central Asia was at times acute . . . the desire of England to conquer the
entire East, including Central Asia, as well as its hope of using the local khanates
54 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
to fight against Russia, played a significant role in these controversies.” Since the
1820s the foreign historiography, particularly English, has strenuously advanced
exaggerated claim about Russia’s expansionist designs and its alleged plans to
send Russian troops clear to India. In making this claim, British scholars have
attempted to prove that England sought only to defend “its Indian dominions,”
while Russia was aggressively seeking to acquire new territories. Aminov and
Babakhodzhaev conclude that “in general, a long-lasting English-Russian rivalry
in Central Asia did not conclude in a way that benefited England, and Central Asia,
once it became a part of the Russian Empire, was protected from the imperialist
expansion of England.”
The historian T. Tukhtametov, in his monograph Russia and Khiva in the Late
19th–Early 20th Centuries,
wrote that Central Asia attracted the attention not only
of imperial Russia but also of Great Britain. “The plans of the English ruling circles
in this regard were far-reaching: after seizing Central Asia and consolidating their
position there, the entertained the idea of attacking the southern and southeastern
regions of the Russian Empire, using Central Asia as a springboard. The English
ruling circles covered up their own expansionist plans with slogans about provid-
ing for India’s security.”
Many other studies in Russian have dwelled on these issues from diverse per-
spectives. Documents studied by the present authors suggest that England tried
by every means to oust the Russians from Central Asian markets and prevent their
political expansion there. The British wanted the Central Asian states to be a kind
of “neutral zone” between Russia and the British colonies in India. The British
government clearly foresaw that Russia would try to seize the Central Asian khan-
ates, and that they would begin with Kokand Khanate on account of the frequency
of palace revolutions there.
Terentev wrote that in 1853 that rumors abounded in the Central Asian khan-
ates about Russia’s intention to eradicate Islam, destroy the Turkish state, seize
Christ’s tomb, and enslave all the people of the khanates. The rumors alleged that
Allah had opened the hearts of the “Ingliz,” who opposed Russia’s schemes, and
that it was now time for the khanates to ally with one another into a single power-
ful union and defeat the Russians on the Syr Darya. The movement to which this
gave rise collapsed at the end of 1853 when Kokand’s forces failed to dislodge the
Russians from their former fortress at Ak-Mechet (Fort Perovskii). Following this,
the khanates lost all interest in the British and their plans.
116
The British nonetheless
used all means at their disposal to prevent Russian forces from advancing further
into Central Asia. They helped the khanates strengthen their defenses by sending a
certain Mustafa to help the khan of Kokand cast cannons in 1853
117
and by sending
other agents to Kokand in 1856.
118
Moreover, in 1855 England signed an agreement
with the khan of Kokand that enabled sepoys “of native origin” to join Kokand’s
forces in fighting against Russia. Indian newspapers confirm that such mercenar-
ies were successfully recruited in the Punjab.
119
The Anglo-Russian agreement of
March 19, 1856, could have ameliorated relations in Central Asia but failed to do
THE KOKAND KHANATE 55
so, leaving observers on the spot expecting a full-blown war there.
120
At least one
Russian officer on the scene argued that this left England, in the name of defending
the region against Russian encroachments, free to operate freely in the Khanate of
Kokand and, indeed, up to the Aral and Caspian seas.
121
The same officer, General
S.A. Khrulev, proposed in a note that the command at Orenburg in Russia should
be given a free hand to protect Kokand in the event of a Chinese invasion provoked
by England.
122
The “Note” written in October 1857 to the Ministry of Affairs men-
tioned that an enhanced Russian role in those countries separating the dominions
of Russia and Britain, as opposed to the maintenance there of the largest army in
Europe, would serve as an important guarantor of peace.
123
In March 1858, the British Parliament appointed a special committee to raise
funds for the colonization of India and the expansion of trade relations with Central
Asia. In 1859 the British used Afghan merchants armed with large sums of cash to
make trial purchases in Central Asian markets of silk and opium.
In 1861 the commander of Russia’s Orenburg corps, Adjutant General Bezak,
submitted a memorandum on what he thought were British plans to weaken the
Bukhara Khanate. To do this it would build a strong Central Asian state tied to
Britain by combining Afghanistan with some areas of Bukhara, Khiva, and Ko-
kand. If they accomplished this before the Russians took Tashkent, then the British
would become the absolute rulers of Central Asia, and its commerce, as well as the
Kashgar trade, would remain in their hands indefinitely.
124
Western governments, especially in England, were unhappy with Russia’s actions
against the Central Asian khanates. So as to reassure Western diplomats, the tsarist
government temporarily halted attacks against the Kokand Khanate. Minister of War
Nikolai Sukhozanet spelled out this tactical step in a secret letter to the commander
of the Siberian corps on November 7, 1859. But while playing to Western opinion,
Sukhozanet acknowledged laconically that “It may happen that the Kokandis might
begin hostile actions against us, and so will thereby give us reason to punish them;
in this case, your Excellency is allowed to use the prepared means, and without
waiting for a special command to occupy Pishpek, notwithstanding what was said
above on this subject.”
125
A letter by the Kokand’s Mallya Khan to the Tsar of Russia at the same time says
much about the state of Kokand-British relations. He explains that while his predecessor,
Khudayar Khan, had “grown close to the rulers of England and Europe,” he himself
had terminated ties to London, opened relations with China, and, “wishing to follow
in the footsteps of former rulers of my country, wished to re-open the blocked path to
relations with your Imperial Majesty . . . and to strengthen the old ties of friendship
even more.”
126
When a Tatar businessman visited Kokand-ruled Tashkent in 1860, he saw twenty
large-caliber copper cannon being loaded on gun carriages. He learned that they
were the work of French and British experts who were casting European-type can-
nons in Kokand.
127
The Russian military gathered all such information and rumors,
and also strictly monitored the actions of the Kokand khan, and especially of his
56 DUBOVITSKII, BABABEKOV
armed forces, which is how they confirmed that Europeans were casting cannons
in Kokand.
128
In early 1862 Mallya Khan and Kanaat returned from Ura-Tyube
to Kokand, where they found the ambassador of Bukhara and Kabul, the latter
purportedly an English agent. The reasons for the ambassador’s presence remain
unknown to this day.
129
However, we may assume that an English agent was trying
to ally the Central Asian khanates against Russia, as well as to collect intelligence
of Kokand-Russian relations and on prospects for Kokand-English trade.
The Russians were not insensitive to the fact that their moves in Central Asia
could arouse England’s hostility. An 1862 “Note on Settlement of the Syr Darya
Line” preserved in the archives warns that any significant expansion of Russia’s
presence in Central Asia could “bring the envy and grudge” of Western powers,
especially England, and could lead to an unpleasant diplomatic exchange.
130
In
December 1863, Adjutant General Bezak reported to the Ministry of War that some
English agents in Kokand who had long had relations with the Kokandis had asked
to be allotted land near Kokand, but had been told that the only land available to the
British was at a great distance from the capital.
131
Despite all of England’s efforts to
prevent Russians from moving deeper into Central Asia, Russia conquered the cities
of Turkestan, Chimkent, Tashkent and the surrounding territories, along with their
garrisons and adjacent villages.
Anglo-Russian rivalry was acute not only in the area of politics, but also of trade.
British manufactured goods barely entered the Kyrgyz steppe, but could be found
almost everywhere in the regions of Tashkent and the town of Turkestan. How-
ever, Russian goods prevailed in the markets; they did so first, because they were
superior in quality and also cheaper, and second, because they were manufactured
nearer to Central Asian markets than the British goods, which had to be transported
overland either from ships landing at ports on the Indus to Bukhara and Tashkent,
or via Persia to Mashad and then Bukhara. Besides this, Russian caravans enjoyed
an exemption from taxes while the British caravans had to pay them.
In July 1869 the British ambassador at St. Petersburg complained to the minis-
ter of finances that Indian exports to Kokand were being charged 25 percent duty.
Further, Russian authorities had warned that in four months all imports from India
to Kokand would be banned, except for indigo and cheese cloth, which would be
taxed at 50 percent.
132
The minister did not respond, observing only that even the
khanate had levied a 2.5 percent tax on imports, so the current taxes could not be
considered new.
133
It was such disagreements as this that had prompted the two
governments to agree to establish a neutral zone between them. The idea had been
England’s. Russia agreed to accept Afghanistan as a neutral territory and to respect
its independence. The British Cabinet did not accept this, believing that Afghanistan
could not fulfill this role and implying that the neutral territory therefore had to
be further north, which Russia would not accept. A few years later the minister of
war wrote to Alexander II that “your Imperial Highness is aware of the jealousy
with which a suspicious England watches our every step in Central Asia.” Even
with an agreement on Afghanistan as a neutral zone and Russia’s assurance not
THE KOKAND KHANATE 57
to cross the Afghan border, the British “cannot easily watch our success outside
the assigned intermediate zone.”
134
Meanwhile, a British general noted dryly that
if the capital cities of the Bukharan and Kokand khanates were still independent,
“there was no guarantee that this would last for long.”
135
In the end, the British had to yield in their rivalry with the Russians over the Kokand
Khanate. In 1873 General Kaufman and British diplomat Douglas Forsyth held a secret
meeting in the khanate, during which the British agreed to pose no objections as Rus-
sia conquered all of Kokand, but that Bukhara would remain independent. Russia and
England also agreed that each would exert pressure from its side to assure that neither
Afghanistan nor Bukhara attacked the other.
Thus, the fate of the Kokand Khanate was sealed in 1873, with the final con-
quest depending only on just when Russia found it convenient to do so and found
a plausible excuse. When Pulat Khan rose up against Kokand the Russian army
rolled in under the pretext of suppressing the rebellion and soon conquered the
entire state.
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