42 DUBOVITSKII,
BABABEKOV
established as early as 1842, when the khan of Khiva attacked Bukhara and forced
Emir Nasrullah to lift his siege of the city of Kokand and hastily return home. An
important motive for the friendship between Kokand and Khiva was that both were
face-to-face with Russian forces, which sought to seize their territories.
Nevertheless, disagreements and conflicts flared up between the two khanates
over border issues. For example, at the remote Kuyn Darya the Khivans had built
a fortification to mark the border both with Russia and with Kokand.
47
Kokand did
not acknowledge Khiva’s ownership of this territory, and over the twenty years
of the fort’s existence seized it twice and drove away the Khivans. In order to re-
turn, the Khivans eventually made a significant payment in livestock to Kokand’s
representative.
48
In connection with the worsening of Kokand-Russian relations in 1858, a Ko-
kand envoy came to the khan of Khiva to ask for assistance against the Russians;
however, the Khivan leader absolutely refused.
49
The fact that a year later the khan
of Khiva sent an ambassador to Kokand testifies to their renewal of diplomatic rela-
tions. However, the emir of Bukhara did not welcome the development of friendly
relations between Khiva and Kokand; indeed he did everything to impede them. To
that end, he tried unsuccessfully to capture and seize the documents of a Khivan
envoy who was returning from Kokand.
50
Within the year the emir of Bukhara
learned from a spy in Khiva that the Kokandis and Khivans had agreed to join
forces in attacking the Russians as soon as the rivers had frozen over.
51
However,
this plan remained unfulfilled. Further consultations at Kokand in 1860
52
and at
the end of 1861, with the latter including ambassadors from Afghanistan as well
as Khiva, may have sought to revive this plan, but surviving documents shed no
light on what occurred.
53
In December 1861, and again in either June or July 1862,
Said Muhammad, Kokand’s ambassador to Khiva, proposed that the khan of Khiva
end his offensive and defensive alliance with the Russians. The Khivan khan not
only rejected this proposal, but also advised Kokand’s ambassador to abandon all
hostile plots and actions against the Russians.
54
In the fall of 1863, the Khan of Kokand sent yet another ambassador to Khiva
with an offer to unite against the Russians. The results of the visit are unknown,
but it can be
assumed that the Khan of Khiva, given the difficult situation he
faced at home, was in no position to agree to such a step. Moreover, all of Said
Muhammad Khan’s previous actions had showed him very reluctant to oppose the
Russians. Thus, the attempts of the Kokand khans to make an alliance with Khiva
against Russia did not succeed, notwithstanding the generally friendly relations
between them.
The relationship of the Kokand Khanate with East Turkestan was closely inter-
twined Kokand-China relations. In the mid-eighteenth century, the Chinese had
conquered East Turkestan and defeated the Kalmyk state of Dzungaria. According
to M. Gorchakov, the descendants of the Kashgar
hodjas, who had been exiled by
the Chinese, lived at the Kokand court under close supervision as political exiles.
The Chinese paid the khan a large annual sum in silver to prevent the Kashgar-
THE KOKAND KHANATE 43
ians from reclaiming their former lands.
55
Nevertheless, some descendants of the
Kashgar rulers managed to travel to Kashgar to restore their authority. Whether
the khans knew of this or even facilitated it, these visits soured Kokand’s relations
with China.
In the end the Chinese decided to buy tranquility through the 1831 treaty, signed
in Beijing by the ambassador of the Kokand Khanate, Alim Bek. At issue was the
status of a series of cities in East Turkestan that had been conquered earlier by the
Chinese. The agreement transferred authority over Aksu, Uch-Turfan, Kashgar,
Yangi-Ghissar, Yarkant, and Khotan
56
from China to the khan of Kokand, Muham-
mad Ali. Henceforth a representative of the khan would collect duties from the
merchants in these places. This treaty achieved its end, and Kokand-Chinese trade
through East Turkestan began to revive. Not only did this trade enable the khanate
to meet its populations’ expectations for Chinese goods, but taxes on the resulting
trade helped replenish the khan’s treasury.
In 1857 rioting broke out in East Turkestan and
developed into a general
uprising against the Chinese government. Kokand broke the terms of its agree-
ment and assisted the rebellion by releasing the descendants of the
hodjas. The
uprising was suppressed in the most ruthless manner. The Chinese government,
believing that Kokand had contributed to the turmoil when it released the offspring
of the
hodjas, severed all relations with the khanate. All attempts of the latter to
restore friendly ties came to nothing. In 1860 Kokand’s ambassador was killed
in Yarkant by order of the Chinese.
57
Severe exploitation, poverty, lawlessness,
and harsh treatment of the local populace by Chinese officials led to another
uprising in 1864.
A manuscript account titled “Ansab al-salatin va tavarihiand al-havakin” states
that representatives from Kashgar arrived in Tashkent with a message signed by
dignitaries and beks. They related how they had rebelled against Chinese rule,
won many battles and gained control of several towns. They now asked Kokand
to send an intelligent, sensitive man who could take over the country’s admin-
istration. The khan chose a little-known but curious figure, Yaqub Bek, and one
of the exiled
hodjas, Buzruk-Hodja. Once in Kashgar they placed themselves at
the head of the uprising and promptly gained the respect of the people of East
Turkestan by capturing many cities. Local leaders looked on in envy and sev-
eral of them, Kyrgyz and Kipchaks, decided to kill Yaqub Bek and take power
themselves. Yaqub Bek tried to calm the situation, but the rebels amassed troops,
only to be defeated by Yaqub Bek.
The Kyrgyz and Kipchaks then complained about Yaqub Bek to the top military
officer of the land,
mingbashi Mullah Alimkul; he however rebuffed them. Yaqub
Bek then sent Mullah Alimkul expensive gifts and reported on the true state of
affairs in Kashgar. The
mingbashi gladly accepted them, arranged a feast for the
envoys from Kashgar, and sent them home with costly robes.
58
In due course all
power in Kashgar passed into the hands of Yaqub Bek, who dispatched Buzruk-
Hodja back into exile in Kokand.