LAND, WATER, AND ECOLOGY 269
Opinions differ on what all this work and funding accomplished. Several
agreements were reached on the management of water in the Syr Darya basin,
and institutions were established to implement them. But the actual allocations of
water remain the domain of yearly barter agreements among the states. Moreover,
while the ecological condition of the Aral Sea region has been improved, it remains
unlikely that this body of water ever will be restored to its pre-1960s level.
71
Among the many reasons for these outcomes, two warrant special note. One
is that nearly all the inter-state negotiations sponsored by international agencies
focused on the nexus of water and energy, but devoted insufficient attention to ag-
riculture. As a result, environmental issues in the Syr Darya basin that derived from
water-intensive production and other agricultural policies were ignored.
72
A further
reason is that many of the international funders and agencies were themselves not
organized in such a way as to assure substantial outcomes, while the local actors
with whom they interacted lacked commitment to the projects and happily paid
them mere lip service. Sievers is equally critical of both sides.
73
These are, however,
classic problems of international cooperation and development assistance that also
affect other aid-receiving contexts.
A second focus of international involvement in the management of water in Cen-
tral Asia has been to promote reform along the lines of Integrated Water Resource
Management (IWRM),
74
usually coupled with the rehabilitation of infrastructure.
Thus, in the Ferghana Valley the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
has run an IWRM project in cooperation with the ICWC since 2001.
75
The aim of
the project is to improve and reorganize the institutional arrangements for water
management. This includes the restructuring of water management on the basis
of hydrological rather
than administrative boundaries, and increasing farmers’
participation in decision-making. The project is coupled with an effort to introduce
Canal Automation, which seeks to automate the measurement of water flows and
the transmission of data.
76
More generally, international funders and organizations have been involved to
varying degrees in decentralizing irrigation management in the three Ferghana coun-
tries along the lines of IWRM, and especially in establishing WUAs. Major projects
have promoted this effort, including the World Bank’s On-farm Irrigation Project
and Asian Development Bank’s Building Capacity for the Formation of Water User
Associations in Kyrgyzstan, the USAID’s Water User Association Support Project
in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan, and the World Bank’s Farm Privatization Support
Project and Rural Infrastructure Rehabilitation Project in Tajikistan.
Irrigation reform based on IWRM principles has altered the structure of water
management in Central Asia. A large number of WUAs have been established,
and water service fees have been introduced in the Ferghana Valley and other
irrigated areas of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. At first, the collection
rate of water fees was low, but considerable progress recently has been achieved.
But shortcomings remain. Sehring analyzed irrigation
reforms in Kyrgyzstan
and Tajikistan and found that the WUA’s must bear responsible for their lack of
270 BICHSEL, MUKHABBATOV, SHERFEDINOV
legitimacy and modest impact on the distribution of water.
77
And indeed, IWRM
is a prescriptive concept predicated on the belief that democratic governance is
good governance. In practice, however, Kipping is right in stating that IWRM is
“politically blind” to the actual political economy and power relations that exist
in the Ferghana Valley, especially in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan’s sectors.
78
One
must question whether economic decentralization and self-government ever can
be achieved within strongly centralized and governmentalized systems.
Central Asian authors also have expressed discontent with international projects
in the area of water management. Valentini et al. reported “that the first series of
pilot projects supported by donors’ assistance and
funding resulted in a mixed
feeling of appreciation for the support, inspiration
due to additional revenues,
and irony
[
among Central Asian experts] because of the extreme aplomb of some
foreign managers and consultants, as well as the substance of the solutions they
proposed.”
79
They point out that in their earlier stages the internationally funded
projects overlapped and duplicated one another, and embraced approaches that local
experts considered unsuitable for the political and climatic conditions of Central
Asia. However, they report, later projects effectively addressed these shortcom-
ings. In another article, Kemelova and Zhalkubaev question the effort of USAID
and other international donors to raise the case of Kyrgyzstan’s exclusion from the
negotiations over an Amu Darya framework agreement.
80
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